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Scientific American Supplement, No. 385, May 19, 1883试读：
THE RAPHAEL CELEBRATION AT ROME.
The most famous of Italian painters, Raffaele Sanzio, whom the world commonly calls Raphael, was born at Urbino, in Umbria, part of the Papal States, four hundred years ago. The anniversary was celebrated, on March 28, 1883, both in that town and in Rome, where he lived and worked, and where he died in 1520, with processions, orations, poetical recitations, performances of music, exhibitions of pictures, statues, and busts, visits to the tomb of the great artist in the Pantheon, and with banquets and other festivities. The King and Queen of Italy were present at the Capitol of Rome (the Palace of the City Municipality) where one part of these proceedings took place.SKELETON OF RAPHAEL AS FOUND IN HIS TOMB IN THE PANTHEON, IN 1833.
At ten o'clock in the morning a procession set forth from the Capitol to the Pantheon, to render homage at the tomb of Raphael. It was arranged in the following order: Two Fedeli, or municipal ushers, in picturesque costumes of the sixteenth century, headed the procession, carrying two laurel wreaths fastened with ribbons representing the colors of Rome, red and dark yellow; a company of Vigili, the Roman firemen; the municipal band; the standard of Rome, carried by an officer of the Vigili; and the banners of the fourteen quarters of the city. Then came the Minister of Public Instruction and the Minister of Public Works; the Syndic of Rome, Duke Leopoldo Torlonia; and the Prefect of Rome, the Marquis Gravina. The members of the communal giunta, the provincial deputation, and the communal and provincial council followed the principal authorities. Next in order came the presidents of Italian and foreign academies and art institutions, the president of the academy of the Licei, the representatives of all the foreign academies, the members of the academy of St. Luke, the general direction of antiquities, the members of the Permanent Commission of Fine Arts, the members of the Communal Archæological Commission, the guardians of the Pantheon, the members of the International Artistic Club, presided over by Prince Odescalchi; the members of the art schools, the pupils of the San Michele and Termini schools with their bands, the pupils of the elementary and female art schools. The procession was rendered more interesting by the presence of many Italian and foreign artists. Having arrived at the Pantheon, the chief personages took their place in front of Raphael's tomb. Every visitor to Rome knows this tomb, which is situated behind the third chapel on the left of the visitor entering the Pantheon. The altar was endowed by Raphael, and behind it is a picture of the Virgin and Child, known as the Madonna del Sasso, which was executed at his request and was produced by Lorenzo Lotto, a friend and pupil of the great painter. Above the inscription usually hang a few small pictures, which were presented by very poor artists who thought themselves cured by prayers at the shrine. This is confirmed by a crutch hanging up close to the pilaster. The bones of Raphael are laid in this tomb since 1520, with an epitaph recording the esteem in which he was held by Popes Julius II. and Leo X.; but they have not always been allowed to lie undisturbed. On Sept. 14, 1833, the tomb was opened to inspect the mouldering skeleton, of which drawings were made, and are reproduced in two of our illustrations. The proceedings at the tomb in the recent anniversary visit were brief and simple; a number of laurel or floral wreaths were suspended there, one sent by the president and members of the Royal Academy of London; and the Syndic of Rome unveiled a bronze bust of Raphael, which had been placed in a niche at the side.THE ANCIENT ROMAN TEMPLE NOW KNOWN AS THE PANTHEON, AT ROME.
This ceremony at the Pantheon was concluded by all visitors writing their names on two albums which had been placed near Victor Emmanuel's tomb and Raphael's tomb. The commemoration in the hall of the Horatii and Curiatii in the Capitol was a great success, their Majesties, the Ministers, the members of the diplomatic body, and a distinguished assembly being present. Signor Quirino Leoni read an admirable discourse on Raphael and his times.
The ancient city of Urbino, Raphael's birthplace, has fallen into decay, but has remembered its historic renown upon this occasion. The representatives of the Government and municipal authorities, and delegates of the leading Italian cities went in procession to visit the house where Raphael was born. Commemoration speeches were pronounced in the great hall of the ducal palace by Signor Minghetti and Senator Massarani. The commemoration ended with a cantata composed by Signor Rossi. The Via Raffaelle was illuminated in the evening, and a gala spectacle was given at the Sanzio Theater. Next day the exhibition of designs for a monument to Raphael was inaugurated at Urbino, and at night a great torchlight procession took place.--Illustrated London News.RAPHAEL'S TOMB IN THE PANTHEON, AT ROME.
THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
The edifice known as the Pantheon, in Rome, is one of the best preserved specimens of Roman architecture. It was erected in the year 26 B.C., and is therefore now about one thousand nine hundred years old. It was consecrated as a Christian church in the year 608. Its rotunda is 143 ft. in diameter and also 143 ft. high. Its portico is remarkable for the elegance and number of its Corinthian columns.
Señor Felipe Poey, a famous ichthyologist of Cuba, has recently brought out an exhaustive work upon the fishes of Cuban waters, in which he describes and depicts no fewer than 782 distinct varieties, although he admits some doubts about 105 kinds, concerning which he has yet to get more exact information. There can be no question, however, he claims, about the 677 species remaining, more than half of which he first described in previous works upon this subject, which has been the study of his life.
THE GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION.
Her Majesty the Queen has appointed the 12th of May for the opening of the International Fisheries Exhibition, which an influential and energetic committee, under the active presidency of the Prince of Wales, had developed to a magnitude undreamt of by those concerned in its early beginnings.
The idea of an international Fisheries Exhibition arose out of the success of the show of British fishery held at Norwich a short time ago; and the president and executive of the latter formed the nucleus of the far more powerful body by whom the present enterprise has been brought about.
The plan of the buildings embraces the whole of the twenty-two acres of the Horticultural Gardens; the upper half, left in its usual state of cultivation, will form a pleasant lounge and resting place for visitors in the intervals of their study of the collections. This element of garden accommodation was one of the most attractive features at the Paris Exhibition of 1878.
As the plan of the buildings is straggling and extended, and widely separates the classes, the most convenient mode of seeing the show will probably be found by going through the surrounding buildings first, and then taking the annexes as they occur.THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION, LONDON.BLOCK PLAN.--A, Switzerland; B, Isle of Man; C, Bahamas and W.I. Islands; D, Hawaii; E, Poland; F, Portugal;G, Austria; H, Germany; I, France; J, Italy; K, Greece; L, China; M, India and Ceylon; N, Straits Settlements;O, Japan; P, Tasmania; Q, New South Wales.--Scale 200 feet to the inch.
On entering the main doors in the Exhibition Road, we pass through the Vestibule to the Council Room of the Royal Horticultural Society, which has been decorated for the reception of marine paintings, river subjects, and fish pictures of all sorts, by modern artists.
Leaving the Fine Arts behind, the principal building of the Exhibition is before us--that devoted to the deep sea fisheries of Great Britain. It is a handsome wooden structure, 750 feet in length, 50 feet wide, and 30 feet at its greatest height. The model of this, as well as of the other temporary wooden buildings, is the same as that of the annexes of the great Exhibition of 1862.
On our left are the Dining Rooms with the kitchens in the rear. The third room, set apart for cheap fish dinners (one of the features of the Exhibition), is to be decorated at the expense of the Baroness Burdett Coutts, and its walls are to be hung with pictures lent by the Fishmongers' Company, who have also furnished the requisite chairs and tables, and have made arrangements for a daily supply of cheap fish, while almost everything necessary to its maintenance (forks, spoons, table-linen, etc.) will be lent by various firms.
The apsidal building attached is to be devoted to lectures on the cooking of fish.
Having crossed the British Section, and turning to the right and passing by another entrance, we come upon what will be to all one of the most interesting features of the Exhibition, and to the scientific student of ichthyology a collection of paramount importance. We allude to the Western Arcade, in which are placed the Aquaria, which have in their construction given rise to more thoughtful care and deliberation than any other part of the works. On the right, in the bays, are the twenty large asphalt tanks, about 12 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep. These are the largest dimensions that the space at command will allow, but it is feared by some that it will be found somewhat confined for fast going fish. Along the wall on the left are ranged twenty smaller or table tanks of slate, which vary somewhat in size; the ten largest are about 5 feet 8 inches long, 2 feet 9 inches wide, and 1 foot 9 inches deep.
In this Western Arcade will be found all the new inventions in fish culture--models of hatching, breeding, and rearing establishments, apparatus for the transporting of fish, ova, models and drawings of fish-passes and ladders, and representations of the development and growth of fish. The chief exhibitors are specialists, and are already well known to our readers. Sir James Gibson Maitland has taken an active part in the arrangement of this branch, and is himself one of the principal contributors.
In the north of the Arcade, where it curves toward the Conservatory, will be shown an enormous collection of examples of stuffed fish, contributed by many prominent angling societies. In front of these on the counter will be ranged microscopic preparations of parasites, etc., and a stand from the Norwich Exhibition of a fauna of fish and fish-eating birds.
Passing behind the Conservatory and down the Eastern Arcade--in which will be arranged algæ, sponges, mollusca, star-fish, worms used for bait, insects which destroy spawn or which serve as food for fish, etc.--on turning to the left, we find ourselves in the fish market, which will probably vie with the aquaria on the other side in attracting popular attention. This model Billingsgate is to be divided into two parts, the one for the sale of fresh, the other of dried and cured fish.
Next in order come the two long iron sheds appropriated respectively to life-boats and machinery in motion. Then past the Royal pavilion (the idea of which was doubtless taken from its prototype at the Paris Exhibition) to the southern end of the central block, which is shared by the Netherlands and Newfoundland; just to the north of the former Belgium has a place.
While the Committee of the Netherlands was one of the earliest formed, Belgium only came in at the eleventh hour; she will, however, owing to the zealous activity of Mr. Lenders, the consul in London, send an important contribution worthy of her interest in the North Sea fisheries. We ought also to mention that Newfoundland is among those colonies which have shown great energy, and she may be expected to send a large collection.
Passing northward we come to Sweden and Norway, with Chili between them. These two countries were, like the Netherlands, early in preparing to participate in the Exhibition. Each has had its own committee, which has been working hard since early in 1882.
Parallel to the Scandinavian section is that devoted to Canada and the United States, and each will occupy an equal space--ten thousand square feet.
In the northern Transept will be placed the inland fisheries of the United Kingdom. At each end of the building is aptly inclosed a basin formerly standing in the gardens: and over the eastern one will be erected the dais from which the Queen will formally declare the Exhibition open.
Shooting out at right angles are the Spanish annex, and the building shared by India and Ceylon. China and Japan and New South Wales; while corresponding to those at the western end are the Russian annex, and a shed allotted to several countries and colonies. The Isle of Man, the Bahamas, Switzerland, Germany, Hawaii, Italy, and Greece--all find their space under its roof.
After all the buildings were planned, the Governments of Russia and Spain declared their intention of participating; and accordingly for each of these countries a commodious iron building has been specially erected.
The Spanish collection will be of peculiar interest; it has been gathered together by a Government vessel ordered round the coast for the purpose, and taking up contributions at all the seaports as it passed.
Of the countries whose Governments for inscrutable reasons of state show disfavor and lack of sympathy, Germany is prominent; although by the active initiative of the London Committee some important contributions have been secured from private individuals; among them, we are happy to say, is Mr. Max von dem Borne, who will send his celebrated incubators, which the English Committee have arranged to exhibit in operation at their own expense.
Although the Italian Government, like that of Germany, holds aloof, individuals, especially Dr. Dohrn, of the Naples Zoological Station, will send contributions of great scientific value.
In the Chinese and Japanese annex, on the east, will be seen a large collection of specimens (including the gigantic crabs), which have been collected, to great extent, at the suggestion of Dr. Günther, of the British Museum.
It is at the same time fortunate and unfortunate that a similar Fisheries Exhibition is now being held at Yokohama, as many specimens which have been collected specially for their own use would otherwise be wanting; and on the other hand, many are held back for their own show.
China, of all foreign countries, was the first to send her goods, which arrived at the building on the 30th of March, accompanied by native workmen who are preparing to erect over a basin contiguous to their annex models of the summer house and bridge with which the willow pattern plate has made us familiar; while on the basin will float models of Chinese junks.
Of British colonies, New South Wales will contribute a very interesting collection placed under the care of the Curator of the Sydney Museum; and from the Indian Empire will come a large gathering of specimens in spirits under the superintendence of Dr. Francis Day.
Of great scientific interest are the exhibits, to be placed in two neighboring sheds, of the Native Guano Company and the Millowners' Association. The former will show all the patents used for the purification of the rivers from sewage, and the latter will display in action their method of rendering innocuous the chemical pollutions which factories pour into the river.
In the large piece of water in the northern part of the gardens, which has been deepened on purpose, apparatus in connection with diving will be seen; and hard by, in a shed, Messrs. Siebe, Gorman & Co. will show a selection of beautiful minute shells dredged from the bottom of the Mediterranean.
In the open basins in the gardens will be seen beavers, seals, sea-lions, waders, and other aquatic birds.
From this preliminary walk round enough has, we think, been seen to show that the Great International Fisheries Exhibition will prove of interest alike to the ordinary visitor, to those anxious for the well-being of fishermen, to fishermen themselves of every degree, and to the scientific student of ichthyology in all its branches.--Nature.
PUPPET SHOWS AMONG THE GREEKS.
The ancients, especially the Greeks, were very fond of theatrical representations; but, as Mr. Magnin has remarked in his Origines du Théâtre Moderne, public representations were very expensive, and for that very reason very rare. Moreover, those who were not in a condition of freedom were excluded from them; and, finally, all cities could not have a large theater, and provide for the expenses that it carried with it. It became necessary, then, for every day needs, for all conditions and for all places, that there should be comedians of an inferior order, charged with the duty of offering continuously and inexpensively the emotions of the drama to all classes of inhabitants.
Formerly, as to-day, there were seen wandering from village to village menageries, puppet shows, fortune tellers, jugglers, and performers of tricks of all kinds. These prestidigitators even obtained at times such celebrity that history has preserved their names for us--at least of two of them, Euclides and Theodosius, to whom statues were erected by their contemporaries. One of these was put up at Athens in the Theater of Bacchus, alongside of that of the great writer of tragedy, Æschylus, and the other at the Theater of the Istiaians, holding in the hand a small ball. The grammarian Athenæus, who reports these facts in his "Banquet of the Sages," profits by the occasion to deplore the taste of the Athenians, who preferred the inventions of mechanics to the culture of mind and histrions to philosophers. He adds with vexation that Diophites of Locris passed down to posterity simply because he came one day to Thebes wearing around his body bladders filled with wine and milk, and so arranged that he could spurt at will one of these liquids in apparently drawing it from his mouth. What would Athenæus say if he knew that it was through him alone that the name of this histrion had come down to us?FIG. 1.--THE MARVELOUS STATUE OF CYBELE.
Philo, of Byzantium, and Heron, of Alexandria, to whom we always have to have recourse when we desire accurate information as to the mechanic arts of antiquity, both composed treatises on puppet shows. That of Philo is lost, but Heron's treatise has been preserved to us, and has recently been translated in part by Mr. Victor Prou.
According to the Greek engineer, there were several kinds of puppet shows. The oldest and simplest consisted of a small stationary case, isolated on every side, in which the stage was closed by doors that opened automatically several times to exhibit the different tableaux. The programme of the representation was generally as follows: The first tableau showed a head, painted on the back of the stage, which moved its eyes, and lowered and raised them alternately. The door having been closed, and then opened again, there was seen, instead of the head, a group of persons. Finally, the stage opened a third time to show a new group, and this finished the representation. There were, then, only three movements to be made, that of the doors, that of the eyes, and that of the change of background.
As such representations were often given on the stages of large theaters, a method was devised later on of causing the case to start from the scenes behind which it was bidden from the spectators, and of moving automatically to the front of the stage, where it exhibited in succession the different tableaux; after which it returned automatically behind the scenes. Here is one of the scenes indicated by Heron, entitled the "Triumph of Bacchus":
The movable case shows, at its upper part, a platform from which arises a cylindrical temple, the roof of which, supported by six columns, is conical and surmounted by a figure of Victory with spread wings and holding a crown in her right hand. In the center of the temple Bacchus is seen standing, holding a thyrsus in his left hand, and a cup in his right. At his feet lies a panther. In front of and behind the god, on the platform of the stage, are two altars provided with combustible material. Very near the columns, but external to them, there are bacchantes placed in any posture that may be desired. All being thus prepared, says Heron, the automatic apparatus is set in motion. The theater then moves of itself to the spot selected, and there stops. Then the altar in front of Jupiter becomes lighted, and, at the same time, milk and water spurt from his thyrsus, while his cup pours wine over the panther. The four faces of the base become encircled with crowns, and, to the noise of drums and cymbals, the bacchantes dance round about the temple. Soon, the noise having ceased, Victory on the top of the temple, and Bacchus within it, face about. The altar that was behind the god is now in front of him, and becomes lighted in its turn. Then occurs another outflow from the thyrsus and cup, and another round of the bacchantes to the sound of drums and cymbals. The dance being finished, the theater returns to its former station. Thus ends the apotheosis.
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