作者：刘振聪
出版社：中国人民大学出版社
格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT
普通语言学纲要(外国语言文学学术论丛)试读：
前言
介绍普通语言学大致有三种操作方式。一是按照历时的方式，介绍语言学发展及流变，重点介绍各个语言学流派。二是按照共时范式，介绍语言学各分支学科。三是从内容专题出发介绍语言学。本书主要采用共时范式，同时兼顾语言学流派的介绍。
本书共分三大部分，十七章。第一部分由第一章构成，主要介绍当代语言学的由来、语言学的构成及其分野。第二部分包括第二到第八章，介绍语言学本体的各个主要分支，包括语音学、音系学、形态学、语义学、句法学、语用学、话语分析和语言学流派。第三部分包括第九到第十七章，介绍语言学相关应用学科，例如语言教学与测试、语言习得、认知语言学、语言与文化、社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学、语料库语言学和文体学。
作者衷心感谢刘润清教授的悉心指导和培养。是刘老师把我领入语言学的大门。听他的普通语言学课程是一种享受。他讲课所体现出来的学识与风度是我孜孜以求的目标。作者也十分感谢中国人民大学出版社的编辑老师们。正是他们的长期信任和辛勤劳动使得此书得以出版。本课题还得到北京第二外国语学院研究生精品课程建设项目的资助，谨此致谢。此书撰写过程中也得到李向民院长的支持和帮助，深表谢意。此书脱胎于作者多年使用的普通语言学讲稿，长期在北二外应用英语学院和翻译学院研究生当中使用。他们对本书提供了大量有价值的反馈，为本书增色良多，在此一并致谢。
本书分工如下：刘振聪负责编写全书各章节。王伟负责编写各章所附的案例以及收集图片。葛文霞负责各章的练习和推荐阅读书目。
本书配有丰富的教学资源，包括课程大纲、参考书目、推荐阅读书目、课件等。因此，它适合即将开设或已经开设普通语言学课程的教师，也适合修读该课程的同学。此外，由于本书行文简洁，资源丰富，它也适合广大有志于考研的同学，可作为考研辅导书使用。刘振聪2015年3月18日于北京翰墨斋Chapter 1Language and LinguisticsIntroduction:
In this chapter,we will discuss such topics as the definition of linguistics,the branches of linguistics,the important distinctions in linguistics,the definition,the design features,the origin and functions of language.1.What Is Linguistics?
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language,which involves the investigation into all human languages.It is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.2.The Branches of Linguistic
Linguistics includes general linguistics,interdisciplinary branches and applied linguistics.（1）General linguistics refers to the study of language as a whole,which deals with the basic concepts,theories,descriptions,models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.General linguistics can be further subdivided into various fields like phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,and discourse analysis,etc.
Phonetics:The study of speech sounds.
Phonology:The study of the system of speech sounds in a language,or the system of sounds itself.
Morphology:The study of the morphemes of a language and of the way in which they are joined together to make words.
Syntax:The way that words and phrases are put together to form sentences in a language.
Semantics:The study of meaning.
Pragmatics:The study of language in use.
Discourse analysis:The study of relationship between language and context in which it is used.Figure 1.1 Branches of Linguistics（2）Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic studies refer to those branches of linguistic studies which have established close links with other branches of social studies,e.g.stylistics,psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,neurolinguistics,and so on.
Stylistics:the study of language style.
Psycholinguistics:the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Sociolinguistics:the study of the interaction of language and social organization.
Anthropological linguistics uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural pattern and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Historical linguistics:the examination of the historical development of languages.
Computational linguistics:an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied,often with the aid of a computer.（3）Applied linguistics refers to the study of the applications of linguistic theories and principles to solve practical problems such as language teaching,the recovery of speech ability,dictionary compiling,and machine translation,etc.3.Important Distinctions in Linguistics
The important distinctions in linguistics include the distinctions between prescriptive and descriptive studies,synchronic and diachronic studies,speech and writing,langue and parole,competence and performance,traditional grammar and modern linguistics,syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations,functionalism and formalism,and so on.Table 1.1 The distinction between prescriptive and descriptive studieTable 1.2 The distinction between synchronic and diachronic studies by F.de SaussureTable 1.3 The distinction between speech and writingTable 1.4 The distinction between langue and parole by Saussure in the early 20th centuryTable 1.5 The distinction between competence and performance by N.Chomsky in the late 1950sTable 1.6 The distinction between traditional grammar and modern linguisticsTable 1.7 The distinction between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations by SaussureTable 1.8 The distinction between functionalism and formalism4.What Is Language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
First,language is a system,i.e.,elements of language are combined according to rules.
Second,language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no interrelationship between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for,for instance,between the word“pen”and the thing we write with.The association between the form and the meaning is established by convention.
Third,language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.
Fourth,language is symbolic in that every word within a language refers to something in the natural or virtual world.
Finally,the term“human”means that language is human-specific.Figure 1.2 The Wall of Love in Paris,where the phrase“I love you”is featured in 250 languages of the world.5.Design Features of Language
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The design features of human language may include arbitrariness,productivity,duality,displacement,cultural transmission,stimulus-freedom,discreteness,the human vocal tract,and interchangeability,etc.Table 1.9 The design features of language6.Origin of Language
In general,most theories of the origin of language fall into four categories.
1）The Devine-origin Theory
Christians believe that it was God who created language for human beings and thus languages have been endowed with a mystical power in some cultures.
2）The Invention Theory
Many think that language was invented by human beings in their life,from imotating the natural sounds,from“crying”the cries of nature like chimpanzees do,or from the grunts of men at work.
3）The Evolutionary Theory
Many linguists argue that language has a common evolutionary origin:both arose from a sudden genetic change in the brain and the nervous system that took place over 150,000 years ago.
4）First Language
Some believe that there existed the first language or the most primitive language wherefrom all languages on the planet originated,e.g.Hebrew,Egyptian,Chinese,and Phrygian.
Although many theories have been attempted,the debate on the origin of language has never terminated.7.Functions of Language
There are two major theories of the functions of language—Halliday’s theory of metafunctions and Jacobson’s theory.
1）Halliday’s theory
According to Halliday（1994）,language performs ideational,interpersonal,and textual functions.Ideational function creates a model of experience and logical relations,interpersonal function enacts social relationships,and textual function creates relevance to context.
2）Jacobson’s theory
Jacobson suggests six functions of language:phatic,poetic,referential,emotive,conative,and metalingual,which correspond to the six components in communication—contact,message,context,addresser,addressee and code.
Despite the different emphasis that different linguists put on the functions of language,there are some basic functions that serve people’s daily communication,namely phatic,performative,informative or descriptive,expressive or emotive,evocative,directive,and interrogative.Table 1.10 Functions of languageCASE STUDY The Tower of Babel
Up until this point in the Bible,the whole world had one language—one common speech for all people.The people of the earth became skilled in construction and decided to build a city with a tower that would reach to heaven.By building the tower they wanted to make a name for themselves and also prevent their city from being scattered.
God came to see their city and the tower they were building.He perceived their intentions,and in His infinite wisdom,He knew this“stairway to heaven”would only lead the people away from God.He noted the powerful force within their unity of purpose.As a result,God confused their language,causing them to speak different languages so they would not understand each other.By doing this,God thwarted their plans.He also scattered the people of the city all over the face of the earth.
This religious story is to explain why different races speak different languages.
Summary:So far,we have discussed such topics as the definition of linguistics,the branches of linguistics,the important distinctions in linguistics,the definition,the design features,the origin and functions of language.Exercises
1.Define the following terms.
duality;communicative competence;langue and parole;
cultural transmission;phatic communication
2.What are the main differences between modern linguistics and the traditional grammar?
3.Compare Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole with Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance.
4.What is creativity as one of the defining features of language?Give examples to support your idea.
5.In what ways is competence and performance an important distinction in modern linguistics?
6.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?Suggestions for Further Reading
1.Poole,S.C.（2000）.An Introduction to Linguistics.Macmillan Publisher Ltd.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
This is a practical introductory book to linguistics.
2.Fromkin,V.et al.（2004）.An Introduction to Language（7th ed.）.Beijing:Beijing University Press.
This book is appropriate for a variety of fields—including education,language,psychology,anthropology,English,and teaching English as a Second Language（TESL）.
3.Yule,G.（2000）.The Study of Language（2nd ed.）.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Designed for beginners,this best-selling textbook provides a lively introduction to the study of language.
4.Robins,R.H.（2000）.General Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
It introduces readers to important concepts,theories and insights about linguistics.
5.Saussure,F.de.（2001）.Course in General Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
This is a classic work by F.de Saussure to introduce the most fundamental content of linguistics.Chapter 2Phonetics and PhonologyIntroduction:
In this chapter,we will discuss the topics concerning phonetics and phonology such as the definition of phonetics,speech organs,broad and narrow transcriptions,classification of English speech sounds,the difference between phonetics and phonology,phone,phoneme,allophone,complementary distribution,minimal pair,rules in phonology,stress,tone and intonation,etc.1.What Is Phonetics?
Phonetics is generally defined as the study of speech sounds.
Major branches of phonetics include articulatory phonetics,acoustic phonetics,and auditory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics refers to the study of speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view,i.e.,how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
Acoustic phonetics studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
Auditory phonetics refers to the study of speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view,i.e.how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
Note:Phonetic similarity,not phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.2.Organs of Speech
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）—the throat,the oral cavity（口腔）—the mouth,and the nasal cavity（鼻腔）—the nose.
The pharyngeal cavity:the wind pipe（气管）,the glottis（声门）,the larynx（喉）,the vocal cords（声带）.
The oral cavity:the tongue,the uvula（悬雍垂）,the soft palate（the velum）（软腭）,the hard palate（硬腭）,the teeth ridge（the alveolus）（牙槽）,the teeth and the lips.
The nasal cavity:the nose.Figure 2.1 Speech Organs3.Broad and Narrow Transcriptions
The International Phonetic Alphabet（IPA）is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription,the principle of which is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.
Broad transcription refers to the transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only.It is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.Narrow transcription refers to the transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,the set of symbols to show the finer distinctions of speech sounds.It is generally used by the phoneticians.For example,the difference between the aspirated[p]sound in the case of“pit”and the unaspirated[p]sound in the case of“spit”is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription.A small raised“h”is used to hshow aspiration,thus“pit”is transcribed as[pit]and“spit”is transcribed as[spit].4.Classification of English Speech Sound
English speech sounds can be divided into two broad categories:vowels and consonants.In the production of vowels,the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever.But in the production of consonants,the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
English consonants can be classified in two ways:in terms of manner of articulation and in terms of place of articulation.
In terms of manner of articulation,the English consonants can be classified into the following types:
Stops（塞音）/plosives（爆破音）:[p][b][t][d][k][]
Fricatives（擦音）:[f][v][s][z][][][θ][ð][h]
Affricates（塞擦音）:[t][d]
Liquids（流音）:[l][r]
Nasals（鼻音）:[m][n][η]
Glides（滑音）:[w][j]
In terms of place of articulation,the English consonants can be classified into the following types:
Bilabial（双唇音）:[p][b][m][w]
Labio-dental（唇齿音）:[f][v]
Dental（齿音）:[θ][]
Alveolar（齿龈音）:[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]
Palatal（硬腭音）:[][][t][d][j]
Velar（软腭音）:[k][][η]
Glottal（声门音）:[h]Table 2.1 Classification of English consonant5.Classification of English Vowel
English vowels can be differentiated by a number of factors:the position of the tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth,the shape of the lips,and the length of the vowels.
Vowels may be distinguished as front,central,and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.For instance,[i][e][æ]are front vowels,[][]are central vowel,and[u][u:][:]are back vowels.
According to the openness of the mouth,we classify the vowels into four groups:close vowels（[i:][i][u:][u]）,semi-close vowels（[e][:]）,semi-open vowels（[][:]）,and open vowels（[æ][][][][:]）.
According to the shape of the mouth,English vowels can be classified into rounded and unrounded vowels.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded.All the back vowels,with the exception of[:],are rounded.
According to the length of the sounds,we have short vowels and long vowels.The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short ones are lax vowels.
Monophthongs refer to the individual vowels like[æ][][][],and diphthongs refer to the sounds which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions,e.g.,[ei][ai][au][u][i][i][e][u].6.What Is Phonology?
Phonology is the study of the system of speech sounds,esp.in a particular language.
While phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language—speech sounds,they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of a general nature;it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.7.Phone,Phoneme,and Allophone
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment,e.g.,[s][t][d].But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
A phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.It is an abstract unit.
Allophones refer to the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.For instance,the aspirated[p]in peak and the unaspirated[p]in speak are allophones of the phoneme/p/.
Conventionally,phones are placed within square brackets,and phonemes in slashes.For example,[p]is a phone,and/p/is a phoneme.8.Phonemic Contrast,Complementary Distribution,and Minimal Pair
A phonetic contrast is formed by two distinctive phonemes,e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit].
Complementary distribution refers to the fact that allophones of the same phoneme complement each other in distribution,i.e.they occur in different phonetic environment.For example,the aspirated[p]is usually located at the beginning or the end of a word;the unaspirated[p]may occur after an[s]sound like[spi:k].
A minimal pair is a pair of words which differ from each other only by one sound.For example,ban and bin,fan and van,site and side are minimal pairs in English.Figure 2.2 Dealing with Phonological Disorders9.Some Rules in Phonology
1）Sequential rules refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
In English,if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination should obey the following three rules:
①The first phoneme must be/s/
②The second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/
③The third phoneme must be/l/or/r/or/w/
e.g.split,street
2）Assimilation rule:The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.For example,the[i:]sound is nasalized in words like“bean”,“green”and“scream”because it is followed by a nasal[n]or[m].Another example is the negative form of“possible”.It is“impossible”instead of“*inpossible”for the[n]sound is assimilated to[m].
3）Deletion rule:Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.For example,there is a deletion rule which goes:Delete a[]when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Thus in the pronunciation of such words as“sign”,“design”,and“paradigm”,there is no[]sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g.But in their corresponding forms like“signature”,the[]sound is pronounced.10.Suprasegmental Features
Stress includes word stress and sentence stress.
1）Word stress:
Noun and verb:The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable,e.g.`import—im`port,`increase—in`crease,`progress—pro`gress,etc.
Compounds and noun phrases:The stress of a compound always falls on the first element,and the second element receives secondary stress.Differently,the primary stress of a noun phrase always falls on the head noun,not on its modifier,e.g.`blackbird—black`bird,`greenhouse—green`house,`hotdog—hot`dog.
-ing+noun combinations:If the-ing form serves as a modifier of the noun like“dining-room”,then it is a compound noun,the word stress always falls on the first element,e.g.`reading glasses,`sewing machine.If the noun is the doer of the action indicated by the-ing form,then it is a noun phrase,and the primary stress falls on the head noun,e.g.sleeping`baby,swimming`fish.
2）Sentence stress:
In a sentence,nouns,main verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numerals,demonstrative pronouns are usually stressed.The unstressed parts of speech in a sentence are articles,personal pronouns,auxiliary verbs,prepositions,and conjunctions.
Tone:English is not a tone language.Chinese is a typical tone language.The four tones are level,rise,fall-rise,and fall.
Intonation:English has four basic types of intonation:the falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rise tone,and the rise-fall tone.Generally speaking,the falling tone indicates a statement,the rising tone a question,and a fallrise tone an implication,e.g.“Are you alright?”,“I’m alright.”CASE STUDY What Can Phonetics and Phonology Do Solve Crime?!
Phonetics and phonology are widely applied in crime-solving,homeland security and data-analyzing.A number of technologies can be blend with phonetics and phonology,such as accent recognition,lipreading and cipher-decoding through which we can solve a criminal case;we can find out potential threats to the public and to the homeland security and accordingly eliminate them as soon as possible.
In August,2014,ISIS,a radical Islamist group,beheaded James Foley,an American journalist.FBI of America and MI5 of Britain worked together to figure out who was the assailant.They focused on a video released by ISIS.By making a careful study of the assailant’s accented voice,they found that the assailant was a typical Londoner.What he spoke was multi-cultural London English and that kind of accent was commonly heard in East London.
Summary:Today,we have covered a wide range of topics concerning phonetics and phonology such as the definition of
试读结束[说明：试读内容隐藏了图片]