英语教学理论系列:英语词汇与词汇教学研究(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)


发布时间:2020-07-16 16:43:32

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作者:黄建滨

出版社:浙江大学出版社

格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT

英语教学理论系列:英语词汇与词汇教学研究

英语教学理论系列:英语词汇与词汇教学研究试读:

前言

现在呈现在读者面前的这一套教材和读物包括了大中小学阶段英语教学的方方面面,主要涵盖四个部分:作为校本教材的中国文化阅读系列,用于英语教师教学技能培训的英语教学理论和实践的专题论著,用于提高英语教师知识和口语能力的教材,还有用于提高其他学科课程教师本专业英语水平的手册。

作为编者,我们之所以编写涉及大中小学英语教学如此多方面的内容的系列教材和读物,完全得益于浙江大学外国语言文化与国际交流学院和浙江省宁波市镇海区在2008年开始的一个庞大的共建镇海教育强区的合作项目。镇海区人民政府为了进一步提高该区的外语教育水平,和我院签订了这个长达5年的合作项目,除了教材建设,还有教师培训项目、外语学校合作项目、网络教学项目、民工子弟学校项目等。这些项目为镇海区的外语教育,尤其是英语教育走在全省乃至全国的前列起到了示范作用。

在和镇海区有关领导和同行多次的交流中,我们为教材系列项目制订了一个涉及内容广泛的计划,旨在为镇海中小学教师和学生提供有针对性的支持。由此促成了今天这一整套的教材和读物的出版。

在系列丛书即将出版之际,我们要向在长达5年的时间里给予我们支持和帮助的有关各方表示衷心的感谢。

首先要感谢的是镇海区人民政府和镇海区教育局以及镇海中小学教师们的大力支持。正是他们的经费支持、教师们的参与,以及学生们的配合,保证了这个项目的最终顺利完成。

其次我们要感谢浙江大学外国语言文化与国际交流学院的领导、各有关部门的同事和同行的指导和帮助。

作为主持这个项目的负责人,我还要感谢参与这个项目的所有同行和学生们的无私奉献。正是他们的不懈努力和勤奋的工作,使得这个项目得以圆满完成。黄建滨2015年7月于求是园第一部分英语词汇研究1 一种特殊的多词动词

在《英语语法大全》一书中,Randolph Quirk等在多词动词(multi-word verbs)一节里,除了重点介绍短语动词之外,还顺便提到了一种特殊的多词动词结构:动词―动词组合(verb-verb combinations)。在这种组合中,第一个动词根据上下文有人称、数、时态等变化,第二个动词为动词原形,不能变化。这种特殊的动词―原形动词组合多见于口语、俗语及一些习惯用语。由于这种组合中的第一个动词仅限于make,let,help,go,hear等少数几个动词,因此我们将以此分类对这种动词―动词组合进行研究。1.1 由make构成的动词―动词组合

由make构成的此类多词动词不多,只有下述几个习惯用语。

1.1.1 make believe(假装,装作,幻想)

1)Danny made believe he didn’t hear his mother calling.

2)Let’s make believe we have a million dollars.

3)He made believe not to be aware of my presence.

4)I make believe read my French book.

5)That’s nothing but make-believe.

6)Don Quixote lived in a world of make-believe.

从以上例句中我们看到make believe后一般接宾语从句,但有时也可接不定式(甚至可以不带to,如句4)。make believe有时用连字符连接转化为名词表示“假装、幻想、美梦”,或者转化为形容词表示“虚假的、想象的、假装的”。

1.1.2 make do(凑合着使用,设法将就过去)

7)This motel isn’t what we wanted,but we must make do.

8)They are not rich,but they make do on what they have.

9)The chairs have not arrived yet,so we shall have to make do with these boxes.

10)We don’t have a new knife,so we’ll just have to make this one do.

11)It’s make-do airfield.

12)Housing had the flimsy quality of wartime make-do.

从以上例句中我们看到,make do可以单独使用,但通常多与介词with或on连用。make do还可用连字符连接转化为名词表示“临时或凑合着用的东西”,或转化为形容词表示“临时的,暂时的”。

1.1.3 make do without(在没有……的情况下设法应付过去)

13)If you haven’t the right tool for the job,we shall have to make do without it.

1.1.4 make do and mend [(把旧物)修补好凑合着用]

14)You are lucky.Having a family to make do and mend for.

以上这两个短语只是在make do的基本词义上通过加词使含义有所增加而已。

make型动词―动词组合实际上是在语言的使用过程中省略或转移make的宾语而形成的,其中的第二个动词原来是省略了的或转移了的宾语的补语,句10为没有转换的例子。句1中的make believe相当于make his mother(or someone else)believe(使他母亲或其他人认为他没听见而实际上他听见了——假装)。句2中的make believe相当于make someone else believe(让其他人认为我们是而实际上并非如此——装成)。没有这些补充并不影响句意,反而使句子更加简洁了。句7中的make do相当于make this motel do(前半句已有而无重复必要)。句13中的make do without it相当于make the unsuitable tool we have do without the right tool(补充出来太烦琐)。句8中的make do on what they have相当于make these boxes do,和句10相比,它只是改用介词引出make原来的宾语,并将其置于句尾,使句子得以平衡,避免了头重脚轻现象。这些短语在使用过程中逐渐为人们接受而成为固定搭配。1.2 由let 构成的动词―动词组合

由let构成的动词―动词组合较多,常见的这类习惯用语有:let drive(at)(对……)瞄准,射击、打击;let drop/give a hint给出暗示;let fall on/upon在……上作垂线;let fly(at)发射,攻击,痛骂;let go松开,放走,听任,发射,不注意,破裂,辞退;let go/drop/cast anchor抛锚;let go/lose leave/release(+one’s)hold of 放开,放弃,放手;let go of 放走,放弃,松开,丢失(let还可以改为leave);let go with尽情地说,放声叫;let pass让……通过,放过,原谅,忽略;let rest搁置起来,停止(做);let ride不管,听之任之;let slide不管,不关心,听其自然,忽视,放弃;let slip放走,松开,错过(机会),无意中说出。例如:

15)He let go(of)the rope.(let go和let go of均可表示“松开”,故of常可省略。但如其宾语为代词,则of不能省略。)

16)Robin Hood let go an arrow at the deer.

17)Judge Brown let go at the union of his old class and had a good time.

18)He let drop the suggestion that we should meet him in town.

19)Though he didn’t say much.He let fall a few hints of what he had in mind.

20)She aimed carefully and let fly at the target.

21)The class was rather noisy but the teacher let it ride because it was near Christmas.

22)I think we have let slip a good opportunity.

23)Don’t let the opportunity slip.

24)The cowboys worked hard all week,but on Saturday night they went to town and let themselves go.

25)A few hints were let fall by the girl.

let型动词―动词组合中,大多均为let+第二动词+名词形式。实际上,这里的名词是let的宾语,而第二动词是宾语补语。若用代词代替名词,则这个代词必须回复原位(如句21、24)。如果名词较短,则其位置比较灵活(如句22、23)。let 型动词―动词组合和本文所讨论的其他动词―动词组合不同的是,它们可以有被动语态(如句25)。需要说明的是,这一点不适用于非短语型的let结构。例如:I’ll let him do it的被动句可以是He will be let(to)do it。但不论用to与否,这种句子均很少见,通常应改用allow或permit等同义词代替let用于被动句,即:He will be allowed to do it.

在let型动词―动词组合中,有少数几个采用let+第二动词+介词+名词形式。这里,let和第二动词之间可以看作省略了与主语一致的反身代词或从上下文可以确知的名词宾语。句15中如用of,则let和go之间省略了himself,而句20中的let 和 fly之间则省略了a bullet。1.3 由help构成的动词―动词组合

由help构成的动词―动词组合还不能算作习惯用语,它们是英语(主要是美国英语)在使用过程中,为了简洁而省略help的宾语而产生的。help的词义不变,第二个动词本来是被省略了的宾语的补语,可以根据上下文的需要而任意选用不同的动词。这种用法现在不仅在美国英语口语中而且在书面语中也较常见了。例如:

26)Her husband doesn’t want to help(her)take care of the children.

27)After school the pupils often turn to and help(their classmates)clean the classrooms.

28)Why would a mental vision of success help(people)produce real success?

29)Tests will help(you)make your new knowledge permanent.

30)Exercise helps(one)improve one’s health because it takes off weight and strengthens the heart.

从句中括号内的词我们不难看出,被省略的名词(或代词)宾语虽然可以补充出来,但却没有多大必要,因为从上下文我们已经可以清楚地知道帮助的对象是谁。如硬性补出这一宾语,往往会使句子显得别扭(如句27、28、30)。1.4 由go构成的动词―动词组合

由go构成的动词―动词组合通常用于美国口语、方言以及粗俗的讥骂语中。常见的有:go bust破产,失败;go flop垮台,失败;go hang听之任之,少管闲事,被拴起来,被忘掉;let things go hang(对事情)听之任之,漠不关心;go smack into 正撞在……上,猛地冲入,(轰隆一声)与……迎头相撞(go可改为run);go smash 打碎,垮台;go smash into撞入,冲进(go可改为run);go snap突然裂开;go whistle 浪费时间,懈怠,随意行动,被赶走;let sb.go whistle不顾某人的愿望;以及一些诅咒语(见句34~37)。

我们可以认为go与第二动词间省略了and或to,但历史地看,情况并非如此。go的这种用法其实是美国英语对古英语的一种特殊用法的保留。即运动动词同不定式紧密结合而具有与该动词基本一致的意义,而“去”的含义则消失了,这从上述例词中的译文也可以看出。例如:

31)Let the book go hang.

32)The car went smash into a wall.

33)The firm has gone smash at last.

34)Go jump in the lake! / Go lay an egg! / Go lay a brick! / Go sit on a tack! 滚开!/ 别来烦我!/ 别管闲事!

35)Go take a crap! 去你的吧!

36)Go pass on it! 别管它!/ 随它去!

37)Harry was tired of John’s advice and told him to go fly a kite (滚开)!

另外,go型的这种组合还可用于祈使及表示“自己要做”之类意义的句子中。这时go仍含“去”之意,第二动词则可根据上下文的需要选用以表示目的。在命令式中,come和run也可以这样用。例如:go fetch去拿来,go seek去寻找,run help跑去帮助,run get跑去拿,come say来说一声。

38)I’ll just go see.

39)Both of you go stand in the back of the line and wait your turn.

40)He left his grandmother’s house to go live in Chicago.

41)Come say good night.

42)Better come join us.

43)Run get the ball for me,Jami.

44)The children are playing hide-and-go-seek.

句44中的hide-and-go-seek(捉迷藏)为美国英语用法,英国英语用hide-and-seek。除此之外,由go加原形动词构成的合成词还有go-go(n.歌歌舞;adj.歌歌舞的,活跃的,时髦的,买空卖空的),go-go-go(n.连续运动),另外go-getter(有冲劲和进取心的人)也可归于此类合成词,不过现在还未见有go-get一词。1.5 由hear构成的动词―动词组合

由hear构成的动词―动词组合都可以译为“听(人)说(起),据说”,第二动词均与“说”有关。常用的有:hear tell,hear say(后接宾语从句,引导词that可以省略),hear say of,hear speak of,hear talk of,hear tell of(后接名词或代词)。这种用法实际上是在hear与第二动词间省略了具有泛指意义的someone,people一类的词,翻译时当然也可根据需要将其补译出来。这种用法在现代英语中通常用于俗语、方言或口语中。另外,合成词hearsay作名词表示“传闻”,作形容词表示“道听途说得来的”。例如:

45)I’ve heard say he is a miser.

46)I’ve often heard tell that Hangzhou is a beautiful place,and now am seeing it with my own eyes.

47)Have you heard tell of such things?

48)It’s merely hearsay.

此外,我们有时还可以见到stay put(保持原位,停在原地不动),be put to it(陷入困境),get hurt(受伤)等形同上述动词—动词组合的短语,但它们中的第二动词并非原形动词而是过去分词,故不在本文讨论之列。

参考文献

[1]安列等.英语习语汉译词典.西安:陕西人民教育出版社,1992.

[2]葛传鬶.英语惯用法词典.合肥:时代出版社,1985.

[3]黄致德.现代英语惯用法词典.北京:商务印书馆,1981.

[4]井上羲昌.英美语惯用法词典.吴拓,等译.长沙:湖南师范大学出版社,1991.

[5]陆谷孙.英语大词典.上海:上海译文出版社,1992.

[6]Quirk R.A Comprehensive Grammer of the English Language.[S.l.]:Longman Group Ltd.,1985.英文标题:A Special Kind of Multi-word Verbs—Verb-Verb Combinations(本文发表在《外语教学》1995年第1期,作者:黄建滨、张怀建)附录一 hear+原形动词结构小议

hear可以和少数动词构成“动词+原形动词”结构,这种结构中的原形动词与“说”有关,因此都可译为“听(人)说(起)、据说”。在这种结构中,hear与原形动词之间实际上省略了具有泛指意义的宾语people或someone一类的词,也就是说,hear后的原形动词本是省略了的宾语的补语。这一用法在现代英语中主要用于口语并已见于书面语中。该结构在使用中有下列几个问题需要注意。

1.和hear构成“动词+原形动词”结构的常见搭配有hear say,hear tell等,其后接宾语从句;hear say of,hear speak of,hear talk of,hear tell of等,其后接代词或名词(短语)作宾语。例如:

I have heard say that the moon influences the weather.我听说月球影响气候。

I’ve heard tell of such happenings.我已听说了这类事情。

2.这一结构主要用于现在完成时和一般现在时中(尤以前者为多)。偶尔也见于一般过去时甚至非谓语动词结构中,例如:

I’ve heard say he is a miser.我听说他是个吝啬鬼。

I hear tell you’re getting married.听说你就要结婚了。

3.这种结构的主语通常为第一人称,尤以I最为常见,但在疑问句中则为you。例如:

I often hear tell of his exemplary deeds.我常常听到人们说起他的模范事迹。

We hear tell he’s left here.我们听说他已离开此地。

Have you heard tell of such things? 你听人说起过这类事情吗?

4.在现代英语中还有一个合成词hearsay,用作名词意为“谣传,传闻,道听途说”,用作形容词意为“传闻的,道听途说得来的”。例如:

Hearsay is half lies.道听途说,不实居多。

All this is mere hearsay.这一切都只是谣传而已。

Hearsay evidence is not accepted in law courts.风闻的证据法庭是不接受的。(本文发表在《英语知识》1997年第1期,作者:黄建滨、景敏言)附录二 go+原形动词结构小议

go+原形动词的用法是一种不规范用法,主要见于美国口语、习语及粗俗的诅咒语中。

1.在美国口语中,go+原形动词常用于祈使句中,表示“要某人去做某事”之意。这时go仍保留“去”的本意,其后的动词则可根据需要选用。例如:

Both of you go stand in the back of the line and wait your turn.你们俩都到后面去排队等着。

Go make a list of everything she said and mark the points that are true.去把她说的一切都列出来,再把真实的那几点标明。

2.不仅go可以这样用,come和run也有类似用法。例如:

Come say good night.来说声晚安。

Run get the ball for me,Jami. 杰米,跑去给我把球捡回来。

3.go+原形动词还可以表示“自己将要去做某事”。这时主要用在将来时和表示目的的不定式中。例如:

I will just go see.我正要去看一看。

He left his grandmother’s house to go live in Chicago.他离开奶奶家到芝加哥去住了。

4.go+原形动词还常用于一些粗俗的诅咒语中。这时多见于祈使句。

例如下面七句均表示“滚开!”“去你的!”“少管闲事!”之意。

Go jump in the lake!

Go lay an egg!

Go lay a brick!

Go sit on a track!

Go fly a kite!

Go take a crap!

Go piss on it!

这种用法偶尔也见于“告诉/叫某人做某事”的句子中。 例如:

Harry was tired of John’s advice and told him to go fly a kite! 哈利听厌了约翰的说教,叫他走开。

5.go+原形动词还常见于一些固定搭配中。在这些习语中,“去”的含义已基本消失,go与其后的原形动词紧密结合而具有与后一动词基本相同的意义。常见的有:go bust破产,失败;go flop垮台,失败;go hang听之任之,少管闲事,被挂起来,被忘掉;let things go hang(对某事)听之任之,漠不关心;go smack into正撞在……上,猛地冲入,(轰隆一声)与……迎头相撞(go可改为run);go smash打垮,垮台;go smash into撞入,冲进(go可改为run);go snap突然裂开;go whistle浪费时间,懈怠,随意行动,被赶走;let sb.go whistle不顾某人的愿望。例如:

Let the book go hang.让这本书见鬼去吧。

The car went smash into a wall.汽车撞到墙上去了。

The firm has gone(to)smash at last.这家公司终于倒闭了。

His Eminence can go hang with his sentimental scruples for all I care.让这位主教大人婆婆妈妈他的去吧,这不关我的事。

go的上述用法其实是美国英语对古英语的一种特殊用法的保留,即运动动词同原形动词紧密结合而表达一个整体意义。通常我们应该在前三种用法中的go与后面的原形动词之间补上and或to,但后两种用法已成为固定搭配,一般已无此必要了。(本文发表在《英语自学》1995年第7期,作者:黄建滨)附录三 动词+原形式过去分词结构小议

动词+原形式过去分词结构是一种特殊的多词动词组合,用于此种结构的动词并不多,仅限于feel,get,keep,stay等几个词,而能用于这一结构中的过去分词也仅限于hurt,hit,upset,set,rid,shut,shed,quit,put等少数几个词。现简介如下:

1.feel类

此类动词均表示“感觉到……”,原形式过去分词已形容词化,例如:feel hurt感到受了伤害;feel put upon感到受骗,觉得吃亏;feel upset感到心烦,感到不适。feel为连系动词。

1)He felt frightfully hurt.他觉得自己受到了极大的伤害。

2)Bill refused to help because he felt put upon.比尔不肯帮忙,因为他觉得自己吃亏了。

3)I felt puzzled and upset.What on earth did he want with me? 我感到困惑心烦,他究竟想从我这里得到什么?

2.get类

get与原形式过去分词连用的情况很多,主要有以下三种用法。

第一,表示被动含义,指突然发生、不期而遇或偶然出现之事,常见的有get hit和get hurt。如:

1)My brother got hit by a cricket ball.我兄弟让板球打了一下。

2)Look out! You nearly got hit by that car! 当心!你差点被那辆车撞上!

3)Nobody is going to get hurt if everyone cooperates.如果大家合作,就没人会受到伤害。

4)The train was derailed and a large number of passengers got hurt.火车出轨了,许多旅客受了伤。

第二,get用作连系动词,其后的过去分词已形容词化,例如:get set预备,准备开始;get upset感到心烦。

5)Hurry up and get set.赶紧准备好。

6)Eddie is pregnant.I don’t want her to get upset.埃迪怀孕了,我不想让她心烦。

第三,get和quit,rid,shed,shut连用,后接of构成固定习语,表示“摆脱,除去”之意,其中以get rid of为最常用。如:

7)He tried to get quit of the chores at the barn,but he could find no one to do them for him.他想辞去在粮库的杂活,可又找不到人来代替他。

8)It’s not easy to get rid of a bad habit.戒除恶习是不容易的。

9)I couldn’t get shed of the old cat.我无法摆脱这只老猫。

10)He wished he got shut of all his debts.他巴不得能了结全部债务。

3.stay类

stay类只有一个习语,即stay put,这里的stay为连系动词。该短语含义丰富,主要有:停留在原地不动,静止不动,保持原状,不离开,装牢等。如:

1)After Grandmother came home from her trip to visit Aunt May,she said she wanted to stay put for a while.祖母走访梅婶归来后说她要在家中待一段时间而不外出了。

2)The baby has just learnt to crawl and won’t stay put for a minute.这个婴儿刚学会爬,连一刻也待不住。

3)Who’s that? Stay put! 那是谁?别动!

4)That window keeps rattling; I must fix a wedge in it to make it stay put.那扇窗户老是格格响,我必须加块楔子把它卡牢。

5)These dictionaries have to stay put.They are for reference and not for borrowing.这些字典不外借,它们仅供查阅不能借出。

4.shut类

shut除了用于get shut of外,还见于以下两个短语:keep shut up把……妥善藏好,该短语只用于被动语态中,shut up为主语补语;blow shut吹得关上,shut为主语补语。由于shut直接用在动词之后,故归入本条。

1)The vital documents are kept shut up in a strongbox.机要文件都被锁在保险柜内。

2)The door banged as it blew shut in a sudden gust of wind.突然一阵风把门吹得砰的一声关上了。

5.upset类

形容词化了的upset除了和feel,get连用外,还可以和一些别的连系动词连用,表示:难过的,不高兴的,沮丧的,不愉快的,闷闷不乐的,心绪不宁的,神情不安的,惶惑的,狼狈的,手忙脚乱的,等等。和它连用的连系动词常为look,seem等。

1)He looked so white and upset that the others involuntarily paused in their conversation.他脸色苍白,神情不安,其他人都不由地暂停了谈话。

2)You look upset—what’s happened? 你看起来闷闷不乐,发生什么事了?

3)She seemed quite upset when I asked where she’d been.我问她到哪里去了,她听了似乎很不安。(本文发表在《大学英语》1997年第10期,作者:黄建滨、景敏言)2 A Special Kind of Word Formation: Noun +s+ Noun and the Function of the Morpheme -s-

Abstract:This paper deals with a special kind of word formation,namely,noun + s + noun,in which -s- functions as a special component in word formation—pseudo-morpheme,which is not sufficiently explored by linguists.Many examples are given to show how -s- has come into being,and a comparison is made with some compound words without -s-.

Key words:compound noun word formation morpheme -s-2.1 Introduction

A compound noun can be composed in many ways based on the different morphological features of its components,such as noun + noun(bookcase),adjective + noun(deadline),verb + noun(pushchair),adjective + noun(upgrade),verb + adverb(slipup),noun + verb(sunrise),adverb + verb(downfall),etc.However,there is another kind of compound nouns that is largely neglected by linguists.It is in the form of noun + s + noun.From the compound nouns of this kind collected,we find that most of them are commonly used and capable of forming new words.Thus,they deserve a closer observation as a special kind of word formation.All examples cited in this paper are in compound form and listed as entries in authoritative English dictionaries such as The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary(1984),The Random House Dictionary of the English Language(1987),and Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary(1986).The time in the brackets after each word indicates the earliest emergence of the word according to the dictionaries mentioned above.

Compounding is one of the oldest ways of word formation.There are quite a few compounds in Old English.For example,the word “woman” in Old English is spelt as “wifman”,meaning “wif(= wife)+ man”.Although it is difficult to recognize its way of compounding from the singular form of the word “woman”,it is easy to detect its remaining influence on the first syllable /i/ of the pronunciation of the plural form “women”.Another example is “stone bridge”,which is now spelt separately.But in Old English,it is a perfect compound spelt as “stanbrycg”,meaning “stan(= stone)+ brycg(= bridge)”.

Some of the noun + noun compound nouns(mostly involving “-man”)discussed in this paper can be traced back to Old English or Middle English.At the first glance,this kind of words seems to be in the form of “plural noun + noun”.But it is not always the case in that the -s- in the compound does not necessarily indicate a plural form.So this word formation is referred as “noun + s + noun” instead and the -s- here is treated as a special component in word formation.2.2 Analysis in Detail

2.2.1 -s- Indicating Genitive(or Possessive)Case

Structurally classified,Modern English is a kind of analytic language in that the grammatical relationship between the words(also known as syntax)is indicated by the elements other than the word itself,for example,by preposition or by word order.But it is a different story for Old English,which is a typical synthetic language with obvious inflectional affix system indicating the grammatical relationship between the words.In Old English,nouns,adjectives,verbs and pronouns all had complex inflectional changes.Take nouns for example,a noun would change in the form according to gender,number and case,which was further divided into nominative,accusative,genitive and dative cases.A singular feminine or neuter genitive noun had the affix -es,a masculine,-e,and a feminine,-an(not as frequently used as -es),while a plural genitive noun had the affix -a or -ena.In word form,these compound nouns could be spelt in one word or two words.For example,kinsman(1052)was spelt as cinnes man(cin = kin)in Old English,landsman(1000)landes mann,steersman(1000)steoresmann(steor = steer),and townsman(962)tunesman(tun = town).A conclusion is drawn here that the -s/-s- in these words in Modern English derived from the affix -es indicating a genitive case in Old English,thus having something to do with genitive case.

In the Middle English period(1150–1500),the forms of a singular genitive noun were unified as noun + es(most plural genitive nouns were also unified as noun + es,but some retained noun + e).In this period,due to the influence from the French language,the word formation of compounding was not frequently used and the compounds were spelt in two words,with the first noun having an affix -es(or -s if the word ended with the letter -e)to modify the second noun.For example,in Middle English,craftsman(1362)was spelt as craftes man,craftswoman(1386)as craftes woman,daysman(1489)as dayes man,doomsman(1150–1200)as domes man,heartsease(1375–1425)as hertes ese(hert = heart,ese = ease),kinsfolk(1450)as kinnes-folk,beadsman(1230)as bedesman(bede or bed = bead),and bondsman(1250–1330)as bodesman.

In the late Middle English and early Modern English period(1500–1650,also known as the English Renaissance Period),the weakened pronunciation /ə/ in the unified affix -es gradually disappeared and the unstressed affix -es was reduced to -’s,replacing “e” with “ ’ ”.This is the beginning of using “ ’s” to indicate genitive case in Modern English.In this way,the compound nouns,either spelt in one word or in two words with the form of “noun + es + noun” in Old English and Middle English,took the form of “noun’s + noun” in Modern English.For the sake of conciseness,“ ’ ” was left out and the compound nouns spelt in two words were made into one word,resulting in the special kind of compound nouns in the form of “noun + s + noun” such as craftsman,kinsman,steersman,townsman,doomsday,etc.in Modern English.

Apart from the words cited in the previous sections,ever since this period,many compound nouns were made up directly in the form of “noun + s + noun” to name some plants based on the animal features or indicate someone living in a certain place,doing a certain job or belonging to a certain organization(especially those with “-man”).Obviously,the -s in these words did not stand for a plural form but indicated a genitive noun.Examples of the words formed in this way mostly appeared during the period between 16th century and 19th century.The 20th and 21st centuries witnessed the new words formed in analogy to the previous ones with few first nouns beyond the range of the past ones.For example,“tradesman”(1579)had its origin as “trade’s man” and “Kingsman”(1639)was originally “King’s man”(which is still used nowadays).

Other examples in this category are:artsman(1551),bailsman(1862),bandsman(1842),banksman(1598),batsman(1756),boatsman(1549),brakesman(1851),catspaw(1657,= cat’s paw),cocksfoot(1679),cockshead(1597),copesman(1853),copesmate(1612),cracksman(1812),cranesbill(1548,also crane’s bill),deathsman(1589),dogsbody(1810–1820,also dog’s body or dog’s-body),dogstail(1753),doomsdayer(1970–1975),doorsman(1858),draftsman = draughtsman(1663),dragsman(1812),fieldsman(1760–1770),foolscap(1632,also fool’s cap),goatsbeard(1578),guardsman(1817),guildsman(1873),gunsman(1766),handcraftsman(1530–1531),handicraftsman(1551),hawksbill(1657,= hawk’s-bill),helmsman(1622),houndsberry(1265),hounds-foot(1710),houndstooth(1936,= hound’s-tooth),huntsman(1567),klansman(1900–1905),lambswool(1552),leadsman(1510),linesman(1856),locksman(1759),loftsman(1900–1905),magsman(1838),marksman(1645–1655),mobsman(1868),moorsman(1889),netsman(1867),oarsman(1701)ombudsman(1959),plantsman(1831),portsman(1625),Queensman(1862),ratsbane(1523),roadsman(1741),roundsman(1795),scalesman(1838),seedsman(1585–1595),sheepshead(1535–1545,= sheep’s-head),sheepsweel(1880–1885),shillingsworth(1840),sidesman(1632),smalksman(1883),sneaksman(1812),spotsman(1895),statesman(1592),strokesman(1712),swordsman(1680),tidesman(1667),topsman(1825),trailsman(1855–1860),tribesman(1798),wheelsman(1885),woodsman(1880–1890),yachtsman(1862),etc.

As early as in 1582,the word “sports” was used as an adjective,thus the compound nouns with “sports” may fall into the “adjective+noun” category.However,the -s- in the word “sportsman”(1760)indicates a genitive case,which is what we are talking about in this part.Many nouns formed with “sports” are spelt in two separate words,such as sports car,sports coat,sports field,sports medicine,sports meeting,sports page,etc.And from “sportsman” came the compounds such as sportsmanship(1745),sportswoman(1754),sportsmanly(1778),sportsmanlike(1816),sportswriter(1901),sportswear(1912),sportscast(1941),sportscasting(1965–1970),etc.From “sports” come the derivatives such as sportsdom and sportsy.

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