作者：Greer, Carlotta C. (Carlotta Cherryholmes)
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School and Home Cooking试读：
PREFACE
School and Home Cooking is a text which can be placed in the hands of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves much time.
The psychological method of education, which treats first of material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil.
Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the text; they are classified after each is considered.
At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of lessons called Related Work, which includes table service lessons, home projects, and meal cooking. Table service lessons are introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative processes are performed. The cost and food value of meals are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise selection and thrifty buying of foods are also treated in these lessons.
Home projects which progressive teachers have found effective in making home economics function in the home—one of the goals to be attained in democratic education—contain suggestive material which may be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes.
An adaptation of the "meal method," i.e., meal cooking, is used both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same time.
Experiments regarding food preparation and composition and processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions.
The recipes have been adapted from various sources. Where it is possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in the home kitchen.
Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and Company, The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal of Home Economics, and the United States Department of Agriculture.CLEVELAND, July, 1920.FOREWORD
One of the slogans of the World War,—"Food will win the War,"—showed that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time.
The subject of food is a broad one,—one that is growing in interest. Many present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food carefully.
A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods one should know what foods to select at market, whence they come, how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to choose to meet best the needs of the body.
Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of combining foods that are varied in composition or that supplement one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to combine foods that "taste well."
In learning to prepare foods, the experience of those who have cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you would become skilful in food preparation.
One class of food or one principle of cooking may be related to another or associated with another. For example, the method of cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general. There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved. The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker and acquires skill in a much shorter time.
The results of every process should be observed. Careful observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great satisfaction, to the home-keeper.
A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful serving of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to acquire.
Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as follows:
(a) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy, nutriment, and flavor.
(b) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another.
(c) Note the results of your work; know why the results are successful or why they are unsuccessful.
Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil, broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All this demands much earnest thought and effort.
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
LESSON I
BAKED APPLES—DISH-WASHINGBAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins)
6 apples Seeded raisins 6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 6 tablespoonfuls water
Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish. Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar in each core. Pour the water around the apples.
Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking, occasionally "baste" the apples, i.e. take spoonfuls of the water from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From 20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required.
DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.—There is almost invariably a waste of effort in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to:
(a) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments.
(b) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing.
(c) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too many motions in washing and drying them.
Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping, efficiency methods, i.e. methods which accomplish satisfactory results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.—SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS. Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves as a handle.]
For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable:
A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans; dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish- mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish- cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap- holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats for drying brushes (see Figure 2).
PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.—If possible, as soon as serving dishes, i.e. dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of food from them. The scraping may be done with: (a) a piece of soft paper, (b) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (c) a knife or spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping, but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be washed.
[Illustration: FIGURE 2.—A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING.
Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.]
Cooking utensils need special care before washing, especially if they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark stain on aluminum)
[Illustration: FIGURE 3—UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING
A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G plate scraper]
Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup.
ARRANGING DISHES.—Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the right of the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the left of the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure 2).
WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.—Fill the dish-pan about two thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be placed in the rinsing pan.
Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups, saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap- dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg beater should not soak in water.
If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth. Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or greasy.
[Illustration: FIGURE 4.—DISH-DRAINER.]
Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible, rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to prevent warping.
[Illustration: FIGURE 5.—DISH-DRAINER.]
RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.—Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish- racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again.
[Illustration: FIGURE 6—DISH-RACK.]
DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.—If such dishes as plates, platters, and saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for this purpose.
Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting, dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open air. Stand boards on end until dry.
[Illustration: FIGURE 7.—DISH-RACK.]
CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.—Use dish-towels and cloths for no other purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry.
[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.—A RACKFOR DRYING DISHES.]
CARE OF THE SINK.—If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and wash the sink. Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning the sink. If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap.
The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water. Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.—For both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in the kitchen. The hands should be washed before preparing or cooking food, and after touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable to have a hand towel conveniently placed.
Clean cooking means clean tasting. This can be done by taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon.QUESTIONS
Are apples sold by weight or by measure, i.e. by the pound or peck?
What is the price per pound or per peck of apples?
Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be rinsed with cold water?
Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in hot water?
Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed with hot water before washing?
Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water?
Why not fill the dish-pan with soiled dishes?
Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water?
Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a soft towel?
Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly?
Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment 87.)
Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering?
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