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Keith Johnson《外语学习与教学导论》笔记和考研真题详解试读：
第1章 五个学生和五种方法
1.1 复习笔记
本章要点
1．Why do people learn foreign languages? 人们为什么学外语？
2．Individual learning differences 个体学习差异
3．Language teaching: a variety of methods 多种教学方法
常考考点
学习动机；教学方法。
本章内容索引
I. Why do people learn foreign languages?
1．Reasons for learning
(1) Further study
(2) Communication
II. The multilingual world
III. Individual learning differences
1．Differences in people you know
2．Individual learning differences
(1) Talent
(2) Attitude
(3) Parental support
IV. Language teaching methods
1．Immersion
2．The grammar-translation method (GT)
3．Total Physical Response (TPR)
4．Audio-lingualism (AL)
5．Community Language Learning (CLL)
I. Reasons for learning（学习的原因）
1．Further study purpose（以进修为目的）
For example, the learner Zhang is learning English so that he can study abroad. The key to his ambition is a good score on an English test, so that he can get a better job.
比如学习者学外语是为了出国或者找到好工作。
2．Communication（交流目的）
It refers to a desire to learn more about a culture, its language and people so that he can communicate well with the target community.
通过学习目标语言的风俗文化能更好的与目标人群交流。
II. Individual learning differences（个体学习差异）
1．Attitude towards the native speakers of the foreign language you wish to learn may sometimes be very important.
对所学语言的母语使用者的态度是很重要的。
2．Parental support is very important for children. If mother and father want a child to do well at learning a foreign language, this will help the process a good deal.
父母的支持对孩子是非常重要的。如果父母想要孩子学好一门外语，父母的支持对于孩子学习外国的过程是有很大帮助的。
3．Talent. There are some people with a talent for foreign-language learning.
有些人生来就有学外语的天分。
III. Methods you have experienced（一些已知的教学方法）
1．Immersion（沉浸式教学法）
It is based on the idea that learners can ‘pick up’ a foreign language in much the same way as children ‘pick up’ their native language.
这个方法是基于“学习一门外语和儿童学习母语本质是相通的”这一观点。
2．Grammar-translation(GT)（语法-翻译教学法）
The teacher spends some twenty minutes of the lesson explaining the grammar point of the day, using diagrams on the blackboard, and plenty of grammatical terms (talking of ‘tenses’, ‘nouns’, ‘adverbs’ and the like). The learners are then given a series of translation exercises to do.
老师花费20分钟将语法重点写在黑板上，并使用大量的语法术语（如“时态”，“名词”和“副词”等），然后让学生做一些双语翻译训练。
3．Total physical response (TPR)（肢体反应教学法）
The teacher first demonstrates these actions herself; then she chooses members of the class to do them. It will be a while before the learners themselves are asked to speak, but when they do, it will be in the foreign language, and to ask other members of the class to follow similar action sequences.
老师首先做几个示范动作，然后选几个同学模仿。做示范动作期间不说话。过一会之后要求同学用目标语描述，让其他同学接着模仿。
4．Audio-lingualism (AL)（听说教学法）
(1) The grammar point is made clear in the textbook by the use of example sentences, accompanied by pictures which help make meanings obvious.
通过例句指出语法重点，再用图片加以解释。
(2) The time spent on exemplifying the grammatical point is quite short, and it is not very far into the lesson that the learners are given a series of rapid-fire exercises (or drills) to practice the grammar point.
用很短的时间解释语法，紧接着做语法快速练习。
5．Community language learning (CLL)（团体语言学习法）
(1) A language-teaching method in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn.
一种学生一起学习外语的方法。学生是客户，老师是顾问。
(2) It is based on the Counseling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counselor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator.
该方法是基于咨询法，即教师作为顾问和翻译，学生作为客户和合作者。。
(3)The CLL emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, it encourages interaction as a vehicle of learning, and it considers as a priority the students’ feelings and the recognition of struggles in language acquisition.
强调团体学习，鼓励互动学习，把学生的感受放到第一位，发现学生语言学习的困难。
1.2 考研真题与典型题详解
I. Fill in the blanks.
1．______ is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.【答案】Grammar-translation Method【解析】语法翻译法即在外语教学中主要运用翻译和语法学习为教学活动的方法。
2．In a ______ world, it is natural to find large numbers of people who speak (and have therefore learned) more than one language.【答案】multilingual【解析】在多语言的世界里，许多人能说（因此也学过）不止一门语言是很正常的。
II. Explain the following terms.
1．Grammar-translation method
Key: Grammar-translation method refers to a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.
2．Audiolingual method
Key: Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.
III. Short answer questions
1．What advantages and disadvantages does the grammar-translation method have?
Key: The grammar-translation method is the most widely known and has been the most widely used of all approaches to language teaching. The main features of it are the teaching of grammar rules of the new language and the subsequent translation of sentences and passages into the new language using those rules. It is less demanding than some other approaches for a teacher whose oral proficiency may not be adequate. It encourages students’ ability to read and write as the focus is on written work.
However, this approach depends heavily on an established and accepted prescriptive grammar, and tends to emphasize language at the sentence level. Texts are translated but are often seen as collections of sentences rather than as coherent passages. As a consequence, the organization of language above the sentence level is not so carefully studied and this is particularly true of the spoken word. Oral fluency and spontaneity is not so well developed and common everyday language is often lacking. There is also a tendency towards unnatural or literal use of the new language.
2．What are the main features and theoretical base of the audiolingual method?
Key: The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation. One of the basic techniques employed is the pattern drill. Speaking and listening are seen as primary in the learning process.
It was built on the ideas of American structuralist linguistics and those of behaviorist psychology.
第2章 学外语学什么
2.1 复习笔记
本章要点
1．Systemic competence 系统语言能力
2．Pronunciation 语音
3．Morphemes 语素
4．Syntax 句法
5．Vocabulary 词汇
6．Sociolinguistic competence 社会语言能力
7．Rules of discourse 语篇规则
8．Strategic competence 策略能力
常考考点
语素；句法；社会语言能力；语篇规则。
本章内容索引
I. Categorizing the levels of knowledge and skill involved in language use
1．Communicative competence
(1) Grammatical
(2) Sociolinguistic
(3) Strategic.
II. Systemic competence
1．Pronunciation
(1) Phonetics
(2) Phonology
2．Grammar
(1) Morphology
(2) Syntax
3．Word meanings (semantics)
III. Pronunciation
1．Plurals
2．Stress
IV. Morphemes
1．Free morpheme
2．Bound morpheme
3．Inflectional morphemes
V. Syntax
VI. Vocabulary
1．Word classes
VII. Sociolinguistic competence
1．Thinking about rules of use
2．Rules of discourse
3．Two ways of breaking discourse rules
(1) Cohesive
(2) Coherence
VIII. Strategic competence
I. Categorizing the levels of knowledge and skill involved in language use（语言运用中的知识和技能分类）
1．Communicative competence(Canale and Swain)（交际能力）‘Competence’ is the term linguists use to describe roughly what we have so far rather ponderously been calling knowledge and skill. The use of the word ‘communicative’ allows us to avoid a more restricted term like ‘grammatical’ worth avoiding because, as we shall see, there is much more to using a language than grammar.
能力是语言学家用来描述人类迄今为止的知识和技能。“交际”这个词避免了与“语法”的混淆。实际上也是，我们更多强调的是使用语言进行交流而不是学习语法。
2．Three levels: grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic.
能力分为三个方面：语法上的，社会语言上的，策略上的。
II. Systemic competence（系统能力）
The word “systemic means as a system” and the term systemic competence therefore covers knowledge and skill related to the way the language works as a system.
系统能力包含了语言系统相关的知识和技能。
1．Pronunciation（语音）
(1) Phonetics（语音学）
The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.
语音学研究所有人类语言的声音。
(2) Phonology（音系学）
Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。
2．Grammar（语法）
(1) Morphology（形态学）
Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.
形态学作为语言学的一个分支，是研究词语的内部结构，形式及分类的一门科学。
(2) Syntax（句法学）
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
III. Pronunciation（语音）
1．The plural s（复数形式s）
The sound /s/ is represented in writing with the letter s, but this is not always the case.
复数形式s在发音时不一定只发/s/。
2．Stress（重音）
When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to the speech sound phenomenon, that of stress.
当一个词中有多于一个音节时，往往会把某个音节或语句里的某几个音节读得重些、强些。这就是重音现象。
IV. Morphemes（语素）
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
1．Free morpheme（自由语素）
Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemes are free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.
自由词素指能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。所有的单语素词都是自由语素，由自由语素构成的多语素词为复合词。
2．Bound morpheme（黏着语素）
Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. -s, -er, -ed and -ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.
一些词素不能够单独成词，但会起到一定的功能作用。这种语素叫做黏着语素。
3．Inflectional morphemes（屈折语素）
Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.
屈折语素不用来创造新词，而是体现一个词的不同语法功能。
Identifying and analyzing morphemes: unbelievable→un + believ(e)+ able
如分析组成unbelievable的语素有un，believ(e)，able.
V. Syntax（句法）
Syntax is used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language.
句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
VI. Vocabulary（词汇）
Word Classes（词类）
The general word classes include: Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns and conjunctions.
常见的词类包括：名词、形容词、动词、副词、介词、代词和连词。
VII. Sociolinguistic competence（社会语言能力）
1．Thinking about rules of use（语言运用规则）
(1) Socio-cultural rules of use（社会文化影响）
The study of how language is interpreted by its users in its linguistic and non-linguistic context.
语言的意义受语言环境和非语言环境的双重影响。
(2) Greeting questions（问候语）
For example: The question Where are you going? is just a way of saying hello.
例如：“你要去哪啊？”只是打招呼的一种方式。
2．Rules of discourse（语篇分析能力）
(1) Discourse（语篇）
A general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews.
泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。它指更大的语言单位比如段落、对话、采访等。
(2) Discourse analysis（语篇分析）
The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews.
研究句子在口语及书面语中如何构成有意义的语言单位比如段落，对话，采访等。
3．Two ways of breaking discourse rules（两种违反语篇规则的方式）
(1) Cohesion（衔接）
Cohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis. It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.
衔接是语篇分析中的一个重要研究领域。它是指语篇中不同要素间的语法与（或）词汇关系。既可能是不同句子间的相互关系，也可能是一个句子中不同部分间的关系。
①Substitution（替代）
The process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structure is called substitution.
用一个词代替另一个词在结构中的位置的过程或结果叫做替代。
There are three types of substitution, that is, nominal (to replace a noun or noun phrase), verbal (to replace a verb phrase) and clausal (to replace a clause) substitution.
替代有三种类型，分别是，名词替代（替代名词或名词性短语），动词替代（替代一个动词短语）及从句替代（替代一个从句）。
②Ellipsis（省略）
Ellipsis is to leave out a word or phrase of a sentence for reasons of economy, emphasis or style, and the omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.
省略是指为了简洁，强调或风格而省去句子中的词或短语，并且读者可以在前文中找到省略的部分。
There are three types of ellipsis i.e. nominal, verbal and clausal.
省略有三种类型：名词省略、动词省略、从句省略。
For example:
(a) John saw a man in the park. The man’s name was Jack. The man was wearing a coat. The man had a hat on. The man was carrying a stick.
These sentences do not contain grammatical mistakes. What is odd is how they are joined together. In Text (a) it is a little strange how the words the man are repeated. Probably you would also expect sentences 3 and 4, and maybe 5 to be joined together to form a longer sentence—He was wearing a coat and hat, and was carrying a stick. The sentences are cohesive; they do show cohesion of sorts. But the cohesion is rather unusual.
参例句（a）很奇怪是因为the man 这个词一直重复。我们可以把后面几个the man 连成一个句子He was wearing a coat and hat, and was carrying a stick.这个句子连接紧密，即使衔接得有些奇怪。
(2) Coherence（连贯）
Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.
连贯是指话语或篇章中句子的意义的连接关系。
For example:
(b) (spoken in a street, between two strangers): X: Excuse me, can you tell me the time?
Y: The clouds in the East are gathering, and war may ensue.
Text (b) is concerned with coherence, not cohesion. The sentences are well-joined together grammatically speaking. The problem lies on the level of ‘making sense unity’. Y’s response clearly breaks the rules of discourse which require a response to have some relevance to the question asked.
参例句(b)涉及的是连贯性，句子没有语法错误，问题是Y的回答与X的问题无关。
VIII. Strategic competence（策略能力）
This is a very important type of competence for the learners to develop, because they will inevitably face many breakdowns in communication when struggling to use the foreign language with their restricted linguistic resources.
这是语言学习中非常重要的一种能力，在使用目标语言交流的过程中中，语言学习者由于语言知识的不足不可避免地会遇到一些阻碍，这时就需要我们采取策略去解决。
2.2 考研真题与典型题详解
I. Fill in the blanks.
1．Phonetic similarity means that the ______ of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. （中山大学2011年研）【答案】allophones【解析】语音相似性是指一个音素的多个音位变体之间必须有一些语音相似之处。
2．Words can be classified into variable words and invariable words. As for variable words, they may have ______ changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. （中山大学2011年研）【答案】inflective【解析】单词可以分为可变词和不变词。可变词可能有曲折变化。也就是说，同一个单词可能有不同的语法形式，但单词的某个部分保持相对稳定。
3．Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation i.e. the class name, is called ______, and the lower terms, the members, Hyponyms. （中山大学2011年研）【答案】super ordinate【解析】上下位关系是指词类关系。处于上位的词在这里是指词类名称，即上位词；处于下位的词是从属于同一类别的词，即下位词。
4．The idea of ______ was first developed by Roman Jacobson (l896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. （中山大学2011年研）【答案】distinctive features【解析】20世纪40年代，Roman Jacobson提出区别性特征的概念来区分一系列语音对比，以便理解语音的某些方面。
5．Tone refers to the pitch on a syllable of a word. When pitch is related to a sentence, it is called ______. （中山大学2011年研）【答案】intonation【解析】音调是指一个单词的音节的音高。句子的音高叫语调。
II. Multiple Choice
1．______ refers to the system of a language, i.e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of. （西安外国语学院2006研）
A. Langue
B. Competence
C. Communicative competence
D. Linguistic potential【答案】A【解析】语言是指一个言语社团所有成员共享的抽象语言系统。因此，本题正确答案为A。
2．______ refers to construction where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.
A. Conjoining
B. Embedding
C. Concord
D. Government【答案】A【解析】当一个从句与另一个从句并列或结合时，这种句子结构就叫做“联合”。
3．Which one of them is not the cohesive device ______.
A. ellipsis
B. reference
C. substitution
D. subject【答案】D【解析】有很多衔接手段，例如，指称，替代，省略。主语不属于衔接手段。
III. True or False
1．Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. (大连外国语学院2008研)【答案】T【解析】句法学研究词汇构成句子的规则。
2．When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced. (大连外国语学院2008研)【答案】F【解析】在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样所发出的音叫做清音。
3．Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are all open class items. (清华大学2001研)【答案】F【解析】封闭类词的成员数目固定，数量有限。像代词、介词、连词和冠词都属于封闭类词。
IV. Explain the following terms.
1．Sentence（中山大学2011年研）
Key: Traditionally, sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield defined the sentence as one “not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form”. Sentences may be classified along the intersecting dimensions of structure and function. Some linguists are now interested in the communicative function of utterances and label various sentences as “statement”, “question”, “command”, “request”, “confirmation”, etc.
2．Acoustic phonetics （南开大学2011年研）
Key: It is one of the three branches of phonetics，it is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.
3．Allophonic variation （南开大学2011年研）
Key: The phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called Allophony or Allophonic variation.
4．Competence
Key: It refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.
V. Short answer questions
1．Analyze the morphemic structure of the English words gentlemanliness and unlockable, using a labeled tree diagram to illustrate the morphemic structure of the word under analysis. （南开大学2011年研）
(1) gentlemanliness
(2) unlockable
Key:
2．The English sentences given below are ungrammatical. You are required to give the syntactic explanation to the ungrammaticality in each of the sentences. （南开大学2011年研）
(1)*Jack put his ball.
(2)*I wonder Michael walked the dog.
(3)*Frank thinks himself is a superstar.
Key: (1) *Jack put his ball. Because of the word “put”, the sentence lacks a complement, which should be a PP. Therefore, it should be “Jack put his ball under the chair.”
(2) *I wonder Michael walked the dog. The sentence is ungrammatical, for what follows the word “wonder” should be a clause. The correct form is “I wonder if Michael walked the dog.”
(3) *Frank thinks himself is a superstar. In English, the pattern of the word “think” is that think pluses a clause or a complement. So the correct form should be “Frank thinks himself as a superstar.” or “Frank thinks he is a superstar.”
3．The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?
(1) The chicken is too hot to eat.
(2) Flying planes can be dangerous.
Key: There are two meanings to ex. (1): (a) The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment (b) The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.
The ambiguity of ex. (2) comes from “flying planes”. It can be deciphered as “the planes that is flying” or “to fly planes”.
VI. Essay questions
1．Phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in grammar. Explain it with examples. （中山大学2011年研）
Key: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the [P]sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. Its distinctive features of a phoneme are capable of distinguishing meaning.
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, the word “tourists” contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning -ist (meaning “person who does something”), and a minimal unit of grammatical functions (indicating plural).
Therefore, phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit grammar.
2．In Chinese tone changes are used in the way that affects the meanings of individual words. Explain it with examples. （中山大学2011年研）
Key: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language. It has four tones. The first tone is level(阴平), the second rise(阳平), the third fall rise(上声), and the fourth fall(去声). The role of the tone can be well illustrated by pronouncing the same sound combination such as [pa] in the four different tones and have different meanings:
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