作者：周成刚 汪珺
出版社：北京语言大学出版社
格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT
TKT剑桥英语教学能力认证考试备考指南试读：
目录
CONTENTS版权信息Unit 1 Acquisition
Unit 2 Assessment
Unit 3 Differences between L1 and L2 Learning
Unit 4 Function
Unit 5 Grammar
Unit 6 Learner Characteristics
Unit 7 Learner Needs
Unit 8 Lexis
Unit 9 Listening
Unit 10 Motivation
Unit 11 Phonology
Unit 12 Practice Activities and Tasks for Language Skills and Development
Unit 13 Presentation Techniques and Introductory Activities
Unit 14 Reading
Unit 15 Role of Error
Unit 16 Speaking
Unit 17 Writing
Unit 18 Choosing Assessment Activities
Unit 19 Choosing and Consulting Reference Resources to Help in Lesson Planning
Unit 20 Identifying the Different Parts of a Lesson Plan
Unit 21 Lesson Aims
Unit 22 Planning an Individual Lesson or a Sequence of Lessons
Unit 23 Selection and Use of Course Book Materials
Unit 24 Selection and Use of Supplementary Materials and Activities
Unit 25 Teaching Aids
Unit 26 Categorising Learners' Mistakes
Unit 27 Correcting Learners
Unit 28 Giving Feedback
Unit 29 Grouping Learners and Interaction Patterns
Unit 30 Identifying the Functions of Learners' Language
Unit 31 Teacher Roles
Unit 32 Using Language Appropriately for a Range of Classroom Functions
Unit 1 AcquisitionQuick QuestionWhat is acquisition?Acquisition can be described simply as picking up a language (not studying a language). The natural process of internalising the rules of a language; we do not consciously learn our first language but acquire it.The Bigger Picture
Some experts claim that languages can be learned just by being exposed to samples of that language. This school of thought believes that all humans are pre-programmed to learn any language, that we have certain language instincts, and that our brains are hardwired with a universal human grammar system. This is usually the way that children learn their first language, not by studying it but by instinctively picking it up, absorbing it like a sponge.
Acquisition of a language will occur if the learner gets exposure to lots of different samples of that language; not just study materials but everyday examples, messages which involve genuine meaningful communication.
During the process of language acquisition, there is commonly a period when the learner will not attempt to produce any spoken language. This is known as the silent period.
One leading researcher in the field of language acquisition, Stephen Krashen, argues that first language acquisition and second language acquisition are fundamentally the same thing. Most discussions of SLA (Second Language Acquisition) will include mention of comprehensible input.Input is the spoken or written language that learners are exposed to. Some researchers (including Stephen Krashen) believe that second (or third or fourth etc.) language acquisition can take place solely through exposure to comprehensible input and the explicit teaching of language rules and systems is unnecessary. Krashen's research also claims that the best conditions for second language acquisition are met when the learners are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly more complex than their current level. This level of input is often described as “i+1”.
Research into second language acquisition also shows that there is a natural order where all learners naturally learn grammar items in the same sequence (regardless of their first language). Some language items are acquired sooner than others and before others; for example, learners will acquire the verb “to be” before they acquire the “+s” possessive rule.Key Vocabulary
authenticity 语言地道性
comprehensible input 可理解性输入
interlanguage 中介语
language acquisition 语言习得
monitor output 语言输出监控
natural order 自然学习顺序
notice 发现，注意到
output 语言输出
pick up （无意中）学会，习得
transfer 语言转移Tricky Terms and Conceptsinterlanguage VS metalanguage
Interlanguage is a term used to describe the system of language rules that a learner constructs in their own head as they learn a second language. Interlanguage changes and evolves as the learner learns, acquires or picks up more language items. Two learners studying on the same course in the same lessons will each have a different interlanguage. Metalanguage is the language or words and terms that we use to describe and label parts of language. (e.g. auxiliary verb, subordinate clause etc)silent period VS silent way
The silent period, sometimes called preproduction, is a stage in second language acquisition where learners do not attempt to speak. The silent way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. In this method, the teacher is silent during most of the class and the learners do all the speaking.notice VS pick up
When a learner notices a feature of the language he/she is exposed to, like an unfamiliar word in a conversation or in a poster, they will make a mental note each time they notice this word, and at the same time develop an understanding of the use of it. According to linguists, language input would be nothing but “noise” if there is no “noticing”. On the other hand, picking up happens after the stage of noticing, as a learner already uses the feature when he/she produces the language. So when learners notice new language, they pay attention to its form, use and meaning. After this, when they start using it, they will have picked up the new language.In Your Class
As an English teacher, you have probably already created the conditions for your learners to notice aspects of language. By helping them notice language, you are developing their interlanguage.Try It Out
Before you teach your next class: Think about the situations you are creating. Which one provides opportunities for acquisition (rather than explicit teaching and learning)?
While you're teaching your next class: Try giving your learners a chance to notice a rule before you teach it.
After your next class: Reflect on how much of your lesson was “the teacher teaching language”compared with “the learners noticing language”.What You Might Be Tested On
TKT questions might ask you to:
» Look at different types of classroom procedure and decide if they are explicitly teaching language or encouraging language acquisition.
» Match teacher or learner comments about language learning with key terms (e.g. interlanguage).
» Complete statements about language acquisition and language learning.Find Out What You Know
Match the teacher comments with the acquisition terms listed A~G. There is one extra option which you don't need to use.Acquisition terms:
A. interlanguage
B. silent period
C. comprehensible input
D. noticing
E. natural order
F. picking up
G. authenticityTeacher comments:
1. I don't teach all the new words in a text; sometimes my learners will work out the meanings themselves and start to use these new words in classroom activities.
2. I try to select reading texts for my upper-intermediate level learners that are from a loweradvanced level course book.
3. Some of these errors seem logical to my learners, even though it is totally incorrect; it's part of their learning process, so I don't worry too much about it.
4. I always try to give my learners a chance to hear a new word a few times and then meet it again in a vocabulary exercise before I ask them to produce it in a speaking task.
5. With lower level learners, I don't push them to produce language too soon; I give them time to get comfortable with the language.
6. When my learners meet a new structure, they seem to acquire the simple statement form first, then the negative form and lastly the question form.
Key: 1. F 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. EInspiration... language acquisition occurs in only one way: by understanding messages.— Stephen KrashenComprehensible input remains the foundation of all language acquisition.— Pasty Lightbrown & Nina SpadaIn the end, acquisition is too complex to reduce to simple ideas. There are no shortcuts.— Bill VanPattenIf a child from an Amazonian hunter-gatherer tribe comes to Boston and is raised in Boston, that child will be indistinguishable in language capacities from my children growing up here, and vice versa.— Noam ChomskyFind Out MoreQuick Read: The Practice of English Language Teaching (P70-72) — Jeremy HarmerLonger Read: How Languages Are Learned — Patsy Lightbown & Nina SpadaUnit 2 AssessmentQuick QuestionAssessment is just another word for setting tests, isn't it?
Assessment is more than setting tests. It involves gathering data on learner progress and achievement. It can include tests and exams, but there are many other forms, methods and styles of assessment. If used in the right way, assessment will improve your teaching.The Bigger Picture
There are different types of tests: diagnostic test, placement test, formative assessment, progress test, achievement or summative test, proficiency test, self-assessment or peer assessment.
Assessment can affect what we teach, how we teach and our learners' motivation for learning. It is very important for tests to have a positive influence on teaching and learning (rather than a scary, daunting or demotivating effect on learners).
Assessment tasks should accurately reflect what we are attempting to teach and what we expect our learners to be learning.
Feedback to learners on what they got right or wrong, their strengths and weaknesses and what they can do to improve, is very important. Through feedback, assessment helps learning. Informal assessment is often much more suitable for assessing young learners than formal assessment. This is because their ways of thinking and learning are based on experiencing and communicating.
Formal assessment—when a student's work is judged through a test and the student is given a report or a grade to say how successful or unsuccessful they have been.
Summative assessment—when a test is used at the end of a course where a mark or grade rather than feedback is given.
Informal assessment—when a teacher measures whether a student is doing well or not (but does not necessarily set a test or write an official report or give a grade). This can simply be the teacher monitoring a student's progress throughout the course.
Formative assessment—when a teacher gives students feedback on their progress during a course, rather than at the end of it, so that they can learn from the feedback and adjust their learning to focus more on their problem areas and weaknesses.
Portfolio assessment—A portfolio is a collection of work that a student uses to show what he/she has done during a particular course. It could be a folder containing all of the student's written work over a course. These concrete examples of work can be used at various stages in a course to measure or assess student progress.
Continuous assessment—a type of testing which is different from a final examination. Some or all of the work that students do during a course is checked by the teacher on a regular basis and is used to calculate the final grade given to students. It may also include monitoring of classroom performance and participation (not just scores or grades for tasks).
Peer assessment—when students give feedback on their classmates' language, classroom tasks, homework, learning strategies and performance etc.Key Vocabulary
accuracy 准确性
achievement test 成绩测试
appropriacy 恰当性
assessment 评估
autonomous 自主的
cloze test 完形填空
continuous assessment 持续性评估
diagnostic test 诊断测试
feedback 反馈
fluency 流畅性
formal assessment 正式评估
formative assessment 形成性评估
informal assessment 非正式评估
interaction 互动
matching task 匹配任务
multiple-choice questions 选择题
objective test 客观题
open comprehension questions 开放式问题
oral test 口头测试
peer assessment 同伴评估
placement test 分班测试Tricky Terms and Concepts
When we talk about assessment, many terms overlap.formative assessment VS formal assessment
Don't get confused by formative and formal assessments though they two sound and look similar. Formative assessment can be a type of formal assessment, and the easy way to remember what this means is to compare formative assessment with summative assessment:
formative assessment: usually done during a course, and will form the basis of future teaching(after finding weaknesses);
summative assessment: usually done at the end of a course, and can be used to test the sum of everything learned on the course.self-assessment VS peer assessment
This is where students assess each other (peer) and themselves (self), and can encourage students to take greater responsibility for their learning.objective test VS subjective test
Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorised as either objective or subjective.Objective test usually has a single correct answer. (e.g. grammar practice exercises) Subjective test may have more than one correct answer or more than one way of expressing the correct answer. (e.g.writing a story / a speaking interview)diagnostic test VS formative assessment
A diagnosis is a judgement about what a particular illness or problem is, and is made after the problem is examined. A doctor makes diagnosis after examining a patient; an IT engineer might diagnose a problem with a computer system.
A diagnostic test is a test that helps the teacher and learners identify specific problems that they currently have. For example, at the start of the course, the teacher could give the learners a diagnostic test to see what areas of vocabulary need to be covered during the course. The aim of the test would be to identify what words the learners don't know, that is, to diagnose their vocabulary problems. Formative assessments given during the course can also act as diagnostic tests as they help the teacher and learners decide what things will be taught in the remaining lessons of that course.In Your Class
You probably have already used some kind of summative formal assessment at the end of your course to measure student progress. If you are teaching students on a longer course, for example, if you are a primary school teacher, you are probably already using continuous assessment. If, on the other hand, you are teaching a short course, you will have fewer lessons with your students and in this situation, especially with larger classes, continuous assessment is difficult for teachers.Try It Out
Before you teach your next class: Think about giving students the chance to do some peer assessment. Peer assessment works best when students are using some form of marking criteria or scoring framework. Usually, a teacher will design the criteria, but students could design the marking criteria themselves to make the lesson more interesting.
While you're teaching your next class: Look out for opportunities where you might be able to use some self-assessment. You could have students rate their own performance on a particular task or for the lesson as a whole. Getting students to independently assess their own and other students' progress rather than always relying on the teacher helps create independent and autonomous learners.
After your next class: Reflect on whether you assessed how much your students have actually learned in that lesson. If you did, what type of assessment did you use? If you didn't, do you think the lesson could be improved by including some kind of assessment to measure learning?What You Might Be Tested On
TKT questions might ask you to:
» Match assessment tasks with instructions for that task.
» Match assessment aims or areas of assessment with assessment tasks.
» Complete a sentence about assessment.Find Out What You Know
Look at the areas for assessment and the three possible assessment tasks listed A, B and C. Two of the tasks assess the area. One task does NOT. Choose the task (A, B or C) which does NOT assess the area.
1. To assess listening skills
A. choosing the best title for the recording
B. deciding whether statements about a text are correct or incorrect
C. finding the meaning of a word in the dictionary
2. To assess collocations
A. matching the adjectives in one column with the nouns in another column
B. doing the true/false questions deciding whether two words frequently go with each other
C. matching words which have similar sounds in them
3. To assess grammatical accuracy
A. doing gap-fill exercises
B. doing choral drill exercises
C. re-ordering jumbled sentences
4. To assess lexical sets
A. filling in the missing words in a sentence
B. categorising words into different columns
C. crossing out the odd one in each group
5. To assess pronunciation
A. marking the intonation patterns on written sentences
B. listening and repeating words, and finding the odd one out in terms of stress
C. a dictation of a familiar fairy story
Key: 1. C 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. CInspirationWhen a teacher teaches, no matter how well he or she might design a lesson, what a child learns is unpredictable. Children do not always learn what we teach. That is why the most important assessment does not happen at the end of learning—it happens during the learning, when there is still time to do something with the information.— Dylan WilliamThe more you teach without finding out who understands the concepts and who doesn't, the greater the likelihood that only already-proficient students will succeed.— Grant WigginsFind Out MoreQuick Read: Learning Teaching (3rd Ed. Chapter 12 on Testing) — Jim ScrivenerLonger Read: Testing for Language Teachers — Arthur HughesEmbedded Formative Assessment — Dylan WilliamUnit 3 Differences between L1 and L2 LearningQuick QuestionWe learn our first language easily without much effort, but why is learning a second language so difficult?
L1 acquisition is an essential, biologically-driven process. It is part of every individual's development in the most critical stage of his/her acquisition of essential life-skills. L2 learning is not a biologically-driven process. It is not an essential aspect of an individual's general development. It may simply be another subject on an already overloaded school curriculum or something that conflicts with a busy work-life.The Bigger Picture
When we use the term second language, we are usually referring to any language learned after one's native language or mother tongue.
Second language learners, like L1 learners, do learn language by acquiring it through exposure, but they are more likely to learn language in a classroom and the language they learn is selected by teachers. They learn by interacting with the teacher and with other learners and by using language in controlled practice activities.
A number of studies on L1 acquisition have produced evidence that speakers of all languages go through a number of similar stages when they learn their native language. This is referred to as the natural order and applies to the specific order in which all language learners acquire the grammatical features of their first language. The theory of the natural order states that all children acquire theirfirst language in a fixed and universal order, regardless of the specific grammatical structure of the language they learn.
According to the natural order hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a predictable pattern. This theory applies to both first language acquisition and second language acquisition, but, although similar, the order of acquisition often differs between first and second languages. In other words, the order of acquisition of a first language is different from the order of acquisition of that same language as a second language.
Interestingly, all language learners of any single second language, such as English, seem to follow the same fixed order of acquisition no matter what their first language is. Learners of English as a second language typically acquire the grammatical structure of yes-no questions before the grammatical structure of wh- questions. Even more interesting is the idea that, according to the hypothesis, the order of acquisition does not change even when teachers try to teach one item before another. In other words, obvious teaching and learning cannot change the natural order of acquisition.
Teachers can of course speed up the rate of acquisition by providing motivating, engaging and personalised input materials.
The natural order hypothesis is just one theory of language learning and acquisition. Other theories which conflict with the natural order hypothesis also exist.Key Vocabulary
context 语境
deductive learning 演绎学习法
exposure 语言接触
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