费正清新汉学的文化解读(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)

作者：张凌

出版社：中国人民大学出版社

格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT

费正清新汉学的文化解读试读：

本书从文化视角探讨费正清的新汉学及其影响。费正清是美国当代著名的中国问题研究专家，他毕生致力于东亚尤其是中国的研究，开创了美国中国学研究的新局面，被称为美国现代中国学的“创建之父”。费正清非常重视从文化的角度来研究中国，其中国研究具有跨度大的特点，把中国历史看成一个整体，传统与现实紧密相连，在历史进程的变迁中，贯穿其间的是具有相当稳定性和延续性的文化。

费正清对中国儒学的文化思考是其解读中国历史特别是近代史的关键。费正清认为儒学是传统中国文化的主流，在他看来，儒学的发展绵延贯穿了整个中国历史，深深影响了中国的思想、文化和制度，深深融入了中国人的道德伦理、风俗习惯和民族性格之中，发挥着重大的影响。儒家思想首先是一种个人原则，力图使每个人都变成有道德的人；儒学也是传统中国的政治思想，皇帝以其德威作为其统治合法性的基础。儒家思想在历史上促成了中国的稳定和发展，但也是中国现代化受阻的根源。首先，思想领域的儒学格局使中国人以社会和人与人的关系为中心，而不是研究如何征服自然；其次，儒学影响之下的法律的目标是维护上下尊卑的层级关系和社会秩序，法律成为整体的一部分，使中国近代工商业的发展没有强有力的法律制度作为保护；洋务运动中提出的“中学为体，西学为用”的原则并不能使中国实现现代化。

费正清也谈及儒学与中国革命的关系。儒家思想的内向性导致近代中西文化碰撞之后产生各种冲突，最后导致革命，而保守派和革新派均从传统儒学中寻找根据，有时儒学是革命对象，有时儒学又成了革命的依据。在论及康有为和梁启超时，费正清指出他们的一些具有革命性的思想其实正是来自于儒学关于大同社会和新民的思想，并对后来毛泽东和中国共产党产生了直接影响。太平天国运动由于没有争取到儒士的支持，因而不可能完成传统式改朝换代的革命，因此，要在中国取得革命胜利，必须学会利用儒家思想。辛亥革命胜利后，建立了中华民国，从古老帝国的孔孟之道承袭下来的绊脚石阻碍了其政治变革的发展。1927—1937年国民党南京政府恢复了对孔子的崇拜，重申礼义廉耻的儒家道德，但蒋介石不过是利用儒家思想来推行其一党专政的集权主义，儒家思想无法找到什么方案来解决使中国适应现代生活的问题。

儒学与共产主义在中国的胜利也有关系。费正清认为儒家学说和马克思主义都有一个“理论与实践的一致”的原则；另外，共产党提倡的自我批评也类似儒家的自我修养学说，儒家思想的传统在中国与共产主义找到了思想上的契合点。

儒学传统还体现在悠久的朝贡体制上。费正清认为朝贡体制体现了皇权中心意识，是儒家思想的衍生物，不过是把国内的儒家社会秩序扩大后照搬到外界。儒学和中国的科举制度也紧密相连，首先，儒学提供了教育重要性的思想基础，其二，科举考试制度用儒家思想选拔符合官场正统思想的官僚，是一种伟大的政治发明。不过，费正清指出，到19世纪晚期，科举考试本身的种种弊端，甚至还有清政府在科举考试及格入选名额的限制等具体操作问题，使许多有能力的人不能进入政府，引发了造反，最后在1905年被废除。

儒学虽总体上阻碍了近代中国的发展，但也有其比较进步的人文主义传统，体现在儒士文人历来具有的反对失政的传统。不过，与西方重视个人表现的人文主义传统不同，中国传统强调社会行为，这助长了家长式统治，并容许了高度的专制主义。

大一统思想并非来自中国种族的单一性，而是来自儒家思想。大一统思想虽与儒家思想紧密相关，但在数千年的积淀中已经变成了中国人心中根深蒂固的国家观念，其从儒学传统中独立出来，占有显要地位。儒家在哲学上奉行一元论，主张从思想到国家统治结构都要高度一统。另外，汉字的非拼音文字的特点，虽跟西方字母文字相比具有不少缺点，但也有其独特的优越性，即很容易克服方言乃至更大的语言障碍，有助于形成一个大一统的思想格局和政治格局，促成了大一统中国的形成和发展。儒家思想和法家思想是政治集权模式的起源，对大一统思想的形成和发展具有关键作用。另外，中国的民族主义性质、人口增长造成的内向爆炸都促成了中国大一统格局的形成。大一统并不绝对排斥外族统治，甚至在历史上也出现过汉族与异族的共治模式，这一模式在清末达到高峰，形成了条约下的共治局面。

在中华民国建立之初，由于帝国主义侵略而高涨的民族主义要求在国防上有一个全国统一的政权，但当时中国的民族利益面临着的严峻现实与清朝时期的旧帝国相似，面临着西藏和外蒙古等地区的脱离，最后外蒙古在俄国势力的影响下取得自治；在西藏，清政府用更强有力的手段确认了对西藏的宗主权。在新疆，清政府采取了分而治之的方针，国民政府建立以后，新疆虽总体说来处在中国政权争夺圈之外，但仍然隶属于中国。中国近代史上的种种磨难遗留下来香港问题、澳门问题、台湾问题、西藏问题等，均与国家的主权相联系，有些问题现已解决，而有些问题的解决还尚待时日，费正清对中国大一统思想的研究，有助于让美国人了解中国对上述问题的立场和态度，并为美国政府制定恰当的对华政策提供知识参考。

费正清新汉学的一大贡献是动摇了传统汉学的东方主义研究模式的基础，具有区域研究的特点。中国中心观的研究模式正是建立在对费正清新汉学的批判继承上。萨义德指出，东方几乎是被欧洲人凭空创造出来的地方，是与西方对立存在的他者，是异于自己的外在，这种对东西方的区分自古就有。受东方主义以及欧洲中心主义思想的制约，西方人眼中的中国形象往往带有先入为主的概念和印象，而这些概念和印象多多少少也影响到当时的汉学研究。费正清对东西方文明的差异具有深刻洞察力，指出东西方文明首先在人与自然的关系方面有显著差异，这导致了东西方文明的不同文化走向。中国文化与西方文化的主要方面在于差异而非相似。以儒学为根基的中国文化具有超强的稳定性和惯性，使其绵延贯穿整个中国历史，这种相对稳固的传统秩序一直持续到19世纪，被来自西方的强大冲击所改变。费正清所提出的“冲击回应”模式对中国近代史具有很强的解释力，但也有如下问题：第一，这一模式有其内在矛盾，费正清一方面在强调中国传统文化的惰性的同时，也指出其并非一成不变，而只是在一定范围内发生变化，但如何界定这一范围与变化的关系，与其说是客观观察的结果，不如说是用历史结果来代替对历史原因的探求；第二，该模式的内核实质是东方主义的，把中国看成是外在于西方的存在，出发点仍然是欧洲中心主义的；第三，该模式的笼统性对于复杂历史的含义未能做出充分阐述，在讨论西方冲击时容易把西方概念化和绝对化，在讨论中国回应时容易过分抽象化，故该模式容易使人对历史现实形成均匀而单一的理解。在“冲击回应”模式基础之上的“传统近代”模式，仍然假设中国是一个静止不变的社会，只有在强大西方文化的入侵影响之下才可能向现代转型。第三种模式是在对前两种模式进行批判基础之上形成的“帝国主义模式”，认为帝国主义是近代中国种种问题的根源，其代表人物是佩克，这一模式向“传统近代”模式发起挑战，主张近代化理论是美国的中国问题专家用来为美国战后在亚洲的政治、军事和经济干涉进行辩护的意识形态。柯文在前三种中国研究的模式基础之上提出“中国中心观”，认为以上模式都认为中国近代发生的重要变化都只能由西方造成，实际上还是西方中心观的体现，而“中国中心观”则是从中国语境出发，用中国区域差异性和社会层次的差异性来解释一些用其他模式难于阐释的现象。

费正清用“中国中心主义”的概念来解释传统中国的对外关系，认为从历史发展、面积、财富、国力等方面看，古代中国都是东亚的中心，中国古代文明对周边国家和文化影响巨大，故中国中心主义是传统中国对外关系的基础。这种观念也与其“冲击回应”模式一脉相承。从费正清的“冲击回应”模式到柯文提出的“中国中心观”，两种中国研究模式虽有不少区别，但也具有诸多联系：第一，都是“向内摆动”模式；第二， “冲击回应”模式是“中国中心观”模式的基础；第三，费正清对早期“冲击回应”模式的修正使其具有了中国中心观的某些特征。 “中国中心观”倡导回到中国并从中国自身的视角来研究中国，可以弥补以前模式观察视角的一些不足，但也向我们提出了以下问题：第一，国外中国学用完全的中国视角来研究中国是可能的吗？第二，这是必要的吗？第三，这种对观察者视角的担忧原因何在？其一，作为域外的中国研究，观察者的视角是顺理成章的；其二，该模式有助于形成多样化的研究视角、弥补主观化和西方中心观的研究模式所留下的视角空白，但也有其局限性，容易夸大某些传统中国的固有属性使之绝对化，而低估了外来影响和中国文化的适应能力；其三，对研究视角的担忧反映了中国研究学者的某种原罪意识。

中国研究视角的转换显示了当代域外中国学的发展轨迹，不同研究模式间具有一定传承关系，更具有互补关系，多视角的观察方法能弥补单一视角的不足，有助于形成对中国的客观认识，也有助于我们真正了解域外中国学的发展现状。费正清的新汉学使传统汉学发展到中国研究，而且为域外了解中国提供了一个崭新的文化视角，具有开创性意义。

关键词：费正清；新汉学；中国研究；文化解读； “冲击回应”模式

Abstract

The book is an attempt to approach John King Fairbank's new Sinology and its influence from a cultural point of view． As the most prominentfigurein Chinese Studies circle in the United States，Fairbank has devoted all his life to the East Asian Studies，especially Chinese Studies，earning him the title of the founding father of modern Chinese Studies in the United States． Fairbank has always focused on a cultural approach to study China，making his Chinese Studies distinctively grand，which looks atthe Chinese history as a whole and holds that tradition is closely connected to the present，and there is a culture constantin the changes and transformation of the country．

Fairbank's idea of Confucianism is his key to understanding Chinese history，especially modern Chinese history． AccordingtoFairbank，Confucianism has always remained the mainstream of traditional Chinese culture，and its development spans the whole Chinese history，leaving its mark on Chinese thoughts，culture and institutions，and deeply embedded in Chinese people's ethics，customs，and nationalcharacter． Confucianism is first a personal principle；it aims to make every person a moral one；Confucianism is also a political thought of traditional China，according to which a Chinese emperor gains legitimacy of his rule through his high morality and good reputation． Conducive to traditionalChina's stabi lityanddevelopment，Confucianism also served as the root against China's modernization． First，the Confucian phi losophy is focused on the society and the relationship between people rather than on conquering nature；second，law under Confucianism aims to protect and preserve the hierarchical and social order，thus law becomes part of the whole，fai ling to provide strong protection for the development of modern industry and commerce． The slogan of “Chinese learning for the essence， Western learning for practical use”proposed in the Restoration of the 1860s was not able to bring China to modernization．

Fairbank also studied the relationship between Confucianism and the Chinese revolution． The inwardness of Confucianism has led to many conflicts when the Chinese culture and Western culture metand clashedin modern time，which in turn has led to revolution． However，both the conservatives and the reformists tried to find and gain strength from Confucianism， making it the target of revolution at one time，and the theoretical basis for revolution at another． When talking about Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao，two of the most famous reformists in late Qing，Fairbank argues that some of their thoughts with revolutionary ideas have actually come from Confucianism's ideals of the Da Tong Society and the New People，which in turn imposed directimpact on M ao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party． The Great Taiping Rebellion was notableto accomplish a revolution to another dynastyjust becauseitfai led to gain support from Confucians． Anyone who wants to achieve victory in revolution in China，therefore，has to learn how to make use of Confucianism．The Republic of China was established after the 1911 Revolution，but the Confucian ideas passed down from the old empire hindered the development of political reform． The Guomindang Party-led Nanj ing Government restored worshiping Confucius and reiterated the traditional Confucian ethics ofsense of propriety，justice， honesty and honor， but Jiang Jieshi was only using Confucianism to practice one-party dictatorship，and no answers could be found in Confucianism to resolve the problems of adapting China to modernity．

Confucianism is alsolinked with the Communist victoryin China． Fairbank argues that the principle of “uniformity of theory and practice”is shared by both Confucianism and Marxism；in addition，the self-criticism approach advocated by the Com munist Party finds similarity in self-cultivation of Confucianism． The tradition of Confucianism is echoed by Communism in China in some aspects of their thoughts．

The Confucian tradition is also demonstratedin the time-honored tributary system，which shows the royal rights centralism awareness． A derivative of Confucianism，the tributary system is only an expanded Confucian social order to the outside． Confucianism is closely related to the Imperial Examination System：first，Confucianism provides the ideological basis of the importance of education；second，as an effective way to select bureaucrats through Confucianism，the Imperial Examination Systemensures those selected conform to the orthodox ideas of the ruling class，making it a great political invention． Fairbank points out，nevertheless，the various problems of the Imperial Examination System itself in the late 19th century as well as the practical problems，limitation on the qualified number of candidates，for instance，has blocked many talented people outside the government，has led to rebellions and was finally abolished in 1905．

On the whole Confucianism obstructed the development of modern China， yet it has some progressive elements in itself，for example，the humanism tradition of Confucian scholars opposing evi l rule， which may serve as a positive force to modernization． However，the traditional China's value of humanism is focused on social behavior rather than on individual performance of the Western humanistic tradition，so it helps to establish a patriarchal rule and allows for highly centralized autocracy．

The concept of “All under Heaven” （t'ien-hsia）does not come from racial singularity of the Chinese people but rather from Confucianism． Though related closely to Confucianism，the concept of “All under Heaven”has been deeply embedded in the heart of Chinese people， making it stand out of the Confucian tradition． Amonistic phi losophy， Confucianism advocates great uniformity from thoughts to ruling structure． Besides，the non-alphabetical nature of the Chinese language，though having many defects compared with the Western alphabetical languages，possesses a unique advantage of being able to overcome obstacles of dialects and other language barriers，thus conducive to the formation of a unified thought pattern and political pattern，which in turn promotes the formation and development of China as a grand unified country“All under Heaven”． Playing a key role in the formation and development of grand unified thought pattern，Confucianism and Legalism are the roots of China's politicalcentralism．In addition，the nationalistic nature of China and theimplosion caused by population growth also help to form a grand unified pattern of the country． The “All under Heaven”rule does not reject rule by a foreign nationality，however；in history of China a synarchy model appeared several times with a power-sharing pattern between theHan nationality and other nationalities，reaching its peak in Late Qing when a synarchy was formed under the treaties．

When the Republic of China was established，the soaring nationalism aroused by imperialisticinvasion expected a government with a unified common defense，yet the national interests were faced with a grim reality similar to that ofthe old empire ofthe Qing Dynasty，thatis，districts such as Tibetand Mongolia were under the threat of breaking away from the country． Finally Mongolia acquired autocracy through Russian influences；in Tibet，the suzerainty of China over the district was reinforced by firm measures in Qing Dynasty；in Xinjiang，the Qing government adopted a policy of divide-and-rule and maintained effective control over the region． After the Republic of China was established，Xinj iang in general stayed outside the power struggle of China，yet remained part ofthe country． Leftfrom miserable experiencesin the modern history of China，the issues of H ong Kong，Macao，Taiwan，Tibet etc．are allrelated to national sovereignty，some already resolved，some remaining unsettled． Fairbank's study of the traditional “All under Heaven”thought is conducive to A merican people's better understanding of China's stand and attitudes towards the above issues，and provides reference for W ashington in making appropriate policies on China．

One major contribution of Fairbank's new sinology is that the new approach，having a regionalstudy nature，shakesthe Orientalistic approach of traditional Sinology to its foundation． The China-Centered Approach was in fact based on a critical inheritance of Fairbank's new sinology． According to Edward W． Said，the Orient is almost a fabricated place for the Europeans， which is the Other against the existence of the W est and an exterior existence different from self ． This distinction between the East and the W est has existed from ancient times． Due to limitations of Orientalism and Eurocentrism，the W esterners are preoccupied with concepts and impressions of China，which in turn impose influences，big or small，on Sinology． With a profound insight into the differences between the Eastern culture and the W estern culture，Fairbank points out that these two cultures first differ greatly in their respective attitude towards the relationship between man and nature， which has led to different courses of the two cultures． The Chinese culture and the Western culture have more di fferences than simi larities． Based on Confucianism，the Chinese culture acquires an extraordinary stabi lity and inertia，lasting through the whole Chinese history． This stable traditional orderlasted unti lthe 19th century，when a strong W estern cultureintrudedin and castitsimpact on it ． The“Impact-Response” M odel proposed byFairbank has a strong explanatory power for China's modern history，yet some problems do exist：first，the model has an inner contradiction， when Fairbank stresses on the inertia of the traditional Chinese culture，he also points out that the Chinese culture is not absolutely stagnant，though there are limits to the changes that take place within a certain range，how to define the range and its relation with changes that take place is more a substitution of historical results for the exploration of historical reasons，rather than objective observations；second，the kernel of the model is also Orientalistic， which looks at China as an external existence of the West，and assumes a perspective of Eurocentrism；third，the generality of the model makes it difficult to account for the complexity of history，and is likely to be too general and too absolute in the concept of West when discussing the Western impact，and too abstract when discussing China's response． Therefore，the model may give an even and singular understanding of historical reality． Based on the “Impact-Response”model，the “Tradition-Modernity”modelalso assumesthattraditional Chinais a stagnant society，which is able to transform to modernity only by the strong impacts ofW estern intrusion． The thirdmodel is called“imperialism approach”，which bui lds its model by criticizing the former two models，and maintains thatimperialism is the root of various problems in modern China． A major advocate of thismodel， James Peck challenges the“Tradition-M odernity”model and argues that the modernity theory is but an ideology uti lized by the China experts in the United States to defend and justify the A merican political，military and economicintrusion into Asia after World WarⅡ． Based on the three models of Chinese studies，Paul A． Cohen proposes a “China-centered approach”，which holds that all the above three models are based on West-centrism，according to which all the important changes in modern history of China could only be caused by the Western impact ． The “China-centered approach”，on the contrary，explains some phenomena that are difficult to be explained by other models by assuming the specific context of China and considering the regional differences and social class differences．

Fairbank uses “Sinocentrism ”to describe traditional China's foreign relationship，maintaining that Sinocentrism has been the basis of traditional China's foreign relationship due to China's being the center of Asiain terms of historical development，area，wealth and power and its greatinfluence on the cultures of peripheral countries． The concept of Sinocentrism conforms to the “Impact-Response”model he proposes，which is related to the “China-centered approach”proposed by Cohen，though with some differences：first，both are “swinging inward”models；second， “Impact-Response”model serves as the basis of “China-centered approach”；third，the modifications Fairbank made later on his earlier “Impact-Response” model show some tendencies and characters of “China-centered approach”． “China-centered approach”does fi ll up some blind zones left by former models’limited perspectives by advocating coming back to China and study Chinafrom the perspective of Chinaitself，but problems remain：first，is it possible to employ an absolute Chinese perspective to study China in China studies overseas？ Second，is this perspective necessary？ Third，what are the reasons behind all these anxiety and worries of the perspectives of the observer？ In fact，assuming the perspective of the observer is only natural and reasonable in overseas China studies；second，the “China-centered approach”is conducive to forming diversified research perspectives，covering the blind zones left by subjective andW est-centeredmodels，yet it alsohas its limitations， suchas exaggerating some innate qualities of traditional China and making them absolute，so asto underestimate theforeign impact and adaptabi lity of Chinese culture；third，the anxiety and worries reflect some “original sin”of some China studies scholars．

The changes of China studies models reflect the course of development of China studies． These approaches are complementary as well as evolutionary．The multiple perspectives of models fill up the gaps of one single perspective， helping to form a more objective understanding of China for overseas China studies as wellas ofa better understanding ofthe development ofcurrent China studies for us． Fairbank's new Sinology brings traditional Sinology to the state of Chinese Studies，and provides a brand new cultural perspective， with which people outside China achieves a better understanding of the country．

KeyWords：John King Fairbank； NewSinology； Chinese Studies；Cultural Approach； “Impact-Response”Model第1章问题的切入：文化解读1.1　中国：从想象到现实

汉学作为一门西方研究中国的学问，如果把马可·波罗作为汉学的开端和雏形算起，其发展已经经历了数百年历史，主要可以分为传统汉学即欧洲汉学阶段和主要以战后美国为中心的现代中国学或中国研究阶段，而在传统汉学阶段的发展中，中国在西方想象中的形象与汉学有着密不可分的关系，中国的形象经历了从想象到现实的变化，西方汉学家对于其研究对象的中国也经历了从仰视到俯视的视角转换。1694年法国巴黎发生了一桩轰动朝野的大事，一位据说是中国公主的女人被海盗绑架劫掠到了巴黎，根据她磕磕绊绊的法语叙述，她是康熙皇帝的女儿，被许配给日本皇太子，但是在路途中被荷兰海盗掳走，最后辗转又被法国舰船俘获。这在三百多年前的法国是一条爆炸性的新闻，一时间，达官贵人趋之若鹜，都来一睹这位中国皇帝女儿的芳容，甚至皇族也来认她作干女儿，给她买高贵的华服，教给她最高贵的宫廷礼仪，并规劝她放弃原有的宗教信仰，皈依神圣的天主教。这一事件也震动了当时巴黎研究中国的一个小圈子，虽当时还没有严格意义上的汉学，不过当地刚好有一位在中国传教20年刚回巴黎的耶稣会修士，他慕名前去拜会这位中国公主，却发现自己用汉语跟她交谈时，这位中国公主一点也不懂，而是用一种奇怪的语言跟他交谈，并坚持说自己说的才是正宗的汉语。由于当时没有其他懂汉语的人可以判别，所以大家都相信中国公主的话，而不相信修士。不甘心的修士发现，这位公主长得一点都不像中国人，于是又想出一招，回家拿了一本中文书请她读，想以此揭穿她的虚假身份。没想到，这位中国公主拿过书去，就高声朗读起来，不过读的根本就不是汉语。因为她是“中国人”，所以大家又都相信了她的话。随着时间流逝，这位中国公主身上的疑点也越来越多了，最后几乎没有人再听信她的辩言。直到她风烛残年之时，她才透露了为何要冒充中国人，冒充中国皇帝的女儿： “我是一个十分贫寒的法国女人。如果我是法国人，没有任何人会关心照顾我。但只要我摇身一变成了中国人，我所[1]有的好年景都会来了。”

从这个故事可见在那时的西方世界，中国这块神奇的土地具有何等吸引人的魅力，作为当时西方文化先锋的法国人是多么景仰圣地般的中国。其实在此三百多年前，西方已经对中国充满瑰丽的想象和神往了。14世纪中叶的意大利人马可·波罗的《东方见闻录》轰动了文艺复兴时期的西方世界，中国成了西方人的文明梦境，成了他们的理想国和奋斗目标。歌德在晚年迷上了中国，用最优美的诗章赞美中国，感慨“在我们的祖先还生活在野森林的时代，中国就有了这么精致优[2]雅伟大的文明”。法国18世纪启蒙运动的大师们极力赞颂过中国，伏尔泰盛赞中国文明的伟大感化力，坚称世界历史的真正开端不是《圣经》纪年的时代而应以中华文明为开端，还特别赞誉中国法律不仅为惩恶而且还扬善。美国政治家、发明家、文学家富兰克林曾购买大量关于中国社会组织的书籍并加以探讨，还试图派政府大员去中国学习中国法律，而另一个伟大的政治家、美国总统、《独立宣言》的[3]起草者杰斐逊称中国人是“天生的贵族”。

在这一切对中国的膜拜和赞颂背后，是中国资料的缺乏，除了马可·波罗的《东方见闻录》之外乏善可陈。早期的汉学，正是在这种情形下走入西方文化视野的。正因如此，早期汉学也走过不少弯路，甚至有一些悲情色彩。自诩为“西方汉学之父”的普鲁士早期汉学家贝耶就具有代表性。他的一生充满扑朔迷离的悲剧色彩，而他的探索和为汉学献身的一生代表着西方早期汉学家对汉学研究的坚韧、虔诚与盲目。

贝耶综合研究了当时有关中国的所有成果，而这些学说本身很多都是虚假的。当时的英国学者约翰·韦伯终其毕生学术生涯，求证汉语是世界上第一种语言，因此汉语是世界上所有语言的“母亲”；荷兰学者伊萨克·沃休斯认为中国的艺术与科学遥遥领先于所有国家；法国学者菲利普·麦逊曾“证明”汉语是古希伯来语的一支方言，汉语的知识可以诠释《旧约》中的一切语言学上的难解之谜，比如他认为，《旧约》中上帝为救围在沙漠里的以色列孩子们而从天上撒下来的食物“玛那” （Manna）就是中国人所说的“馒头”（Man-ton）；瑞典学者奥拉欧斯·拉德贝克认为汉语是离古哥特语最近的平行的一支。注释[1]Jonathan D．Spence．To Change Europe：The First Chinese in France，1680—1735（The John Fulton Lecture in the Liberal Arts）． Middlebury Vermont： Middlebury College，1989：810．[2]Jonathan．D．Spence．Chinese Roundabout． New York： W．W．Norton ＆ Company Inc．，1992：8182．[3]Spence，Chinese Roundabout：8182．

试读结束[说明：试读内容隐藏了图片]

下载完整电子书