作者：圣才电子书
出版社：圣才电子书
格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT
丁言仁《英语语言学纲要》笔记和课后习题详解试读：
第1章 我们身边的语言
1.1 复习笔记
本章要点：
1. Why study linguistics?
为什么研究语言学？
2. What is language, anyway?
什么是语言？
3. The three levels of language
语言的三个层面
4. Studying language in terms of psychology
心理语言学
本章考点：
为什么研究语言学（语言学的定义）；什么是语言（语言的定义）；语言的三个层面；心理语言学
本章内容索引：
Ⅰ. Why study linguistics?
1. The Definition of Linguistics
2. The Purpose of Study Linguistics
Ⅱ. What is language, anyway?
1. The Definition of Language
2. The Two Important Ways of Conceptualizing Language
(1) Language as system
(2) Language as activity
Ⅲ. The three levels of language
1. Meaning
2. Wording
3. Sounding
Ⅳ. Studying language in terms of psychology
1. Memory
2. The rule
Ⅴ. Summary
Ⅰ. Why study linguistics? （为什么研究语言学）
1. The Definition of Linguistics（语言学的定义）
Linguistics, as any dictionary will tell us, is the scientific study of language.
正如字典里告诉我们的一样，语言学就是语言的科学研究。
2. The Purpose of Study Linguistics（研究语言学的目的）
Some knowledge of linguistics can be of great help in developing your ability to communicate in English. And the bonus is it does not need to be tedious either.
在发展你的英语交流能力过程中，语言学知识能够给予你极大的帮助。另外，语言学也并不乏味。
Ⅱ. What is language, anyway?（什么是语言）
1. The Definition of Language（语言学的定义）
We look at language primarily as a type of social interaction, a tool for communicating and creating meaning among people. In linguistics, this orientation is often aligned with an approach known as functionalism, one that studies language in terms of what it can do (i.e. the functions or uses to which people put it).
我们把语言看作是基本的一种社会互动，一种交流工具而且在人们之间产生意思。我们经常把语言学的定位和功能主义相结合，也就是人们研究语言，而语言能做什么（举例说明：人们运用语言的功能或作用）。
2. The Two Important Ways of Conceptualizing Language（语言的两个重要概念）
(1) Language as system（语言是一种系统）
Language as system refers to all of the knowledge and information about a language that resides in our brains. The system can be thought of as language potential; that is, we have the ability to use any of it, but of course we cannot use all of it at once. Rather, the system contains all of the things that we could say at a given time.
语言作为一种系统是指所有语言知识及信息都储藏于我们的大脑中。这个系统具有语言的潜能。也就是说，我们有能力运用这个系统中的任何元素，但我们不能立即运用所有的元素。当然，这个系统包含在即定的时间里我们能够说的所有事物。
(2) Language as activity（语言是一种活动）
Language as activity refers not to the ability in our minds, but to the actions that we do with language at a given moment. In our everyday lives we do not use the whole of language. Rather, we use whatever bits and pieces seem most appropriate to the situation. An essay we write might be two pages, ten pages, or much longer, but it could never use all the words we have in our vocabulary (let alone all those in the dictionary).
语言作为一种活动不是指我们大脑对它所具有的能力，而是指在即定的时间内，我们伴随语言所产生的行为。当然，我们用一点或几个片断就足够我们当时的情景。一篇文章我们可以写两页，十页，或者更长，但这篇文章不可能用尽我们头脑中所有的词汇（更不用说字典上所有的词汇）。
Ⅲ. The three levels of language（语言的三个层面）
1. Meaning（意义）
Language is a system of symbols which create meaning. As an example, let us return to the greeting you gave the professor in the hallway. You wanted to convey, as briefly as possible, some meaning of greeting someone. So it’s what ideas we can express.
语言是一个能够创造意义的符号系统。举个例子：你在走廊里问候你的教授，而且你会尽量简捷的表达问候。那么，这种问候就是语言要表达的意义。
2. Wording（选词）
As an example above, in order to do greeting, you chose the wording “Hi.” That is wording what we can say.
还是上文用到的例子，为了问候，你选择单词“你好。”这个单词就是我们所说的选词。
3. Sounding（声音）
Note that even such a simple word can be broken down further. It is composed of two distinct sounds: one represented by the “h” and the other by the “i”. (This is the level which does not exist for the system of traffic lights). Finally, in sounding, you actually utter the word so the professor can hear it.
注意即便如此简单的单词都能被进一步分解。“Hi”由两个不同的声音所组成，一个由“h”所表示，而别一个由“i”所表示。（在交通灯系统中并不存在这一层面）。最后，你发这个单词的声音是为了教授能够听到。
Ⅳ. Studying language in terms of psychology（心理语言学）
We have mentioned that we see language primarily as a form of social interaction and that this type of linguistics has a close relationship with sociology. But there is another approach to linguistics which takes a distinctly different view. This approach ignores what happens between people but takes exclusive interest in what happens within a single person’s mind, in exploring the “grammar rules” that every person is said to know at birth. For this reason, people who take this approach see linguistics as a field which is closely linked not to sociology, but to psychology.
我们已经提到过我们把语言看作是基本的社会互动方式，而且语言学的这种类型和社会学有着紧密的联系。然而，对于语言学，还有另外不同观点的一种方法。这种方法忽略人们之意发生了什么，而仅仅对单独的个人头脑里发生了什么感兴趣，并探索每个人天生会说什么。正是由于这种理由，人们用这种方法把语言学看作是一个心理学的领域，而不是社会学领域。
1. Memory（记忆）
Memory it refers to all of the experiences you have had in speaking a language that you keep with you in your mind.
记忆是指在你的头脑里所有你能说的经历。
We learn the expression simply by memorizing it and memorizing the kind of situation in which we can use it. We do the same thing with such expressions as on time, from time to time, few and far between, and all the other idioms that we know. We would not gain anything if we tried to conduct a grammatical analysis of any one of them. Ask yourself: Do you know any other chunks of language that must be memorized rather than produced by rules? What about long time no see? Is this expression grammatically “correct”? Some people say this is a direct translation of a Chinese chunk好久不见, but why do English-speaking people use it?
我们简单的学习表达通过记住它，而且记住它用在什么情景。我们不断适时的运用这样的表达以及我们所知道的习语。如果我们尝试它们其中任何一个语法分析，我们不会获得任何事物。问问你自己，你知道的任何其它语言片段是通过记忆得来，而不是通过语法规则得来。英文好久不见的表达其语法是正确的吗？但为什么说英语的人们用这句直接从中文翻译过来的句子表达？
We memorize language use in the same way we memorize songs. When you use a phrase such as by and large, do you stop to notice that it does not follow the rules of grammar? When you are greeting your classmate Good morning, do you bother to think about the fact that this construction has an adjective modifying a noun? No, unless you are particularly crazy about grammar, you utter Good morning as a language chunk, without using rules to analyze its structure.
我们运用记忆语言的方法记忆歌曲。当你用一个短语，例如：总的来说，你会停下来去注意它没有遵守语法规则？当你问候你的同学早上好，你会介意事实上这个短语的结构是一个形容词修饰一个名字？不，除非你对语法特别的疯狂，你表达早上好作为一种语言块，并没有用语法分析它的结构。
2. The rule（规则）
It is being used in a way that may be different than you are used to. In linguistics, a rule is a description of how people actually speak, not of how they or others think they ought to speak. (Linguists often explain this by saying that they seek to describe language use as it exists, and not to prescribe how people ought to use language.) One basic rule of English, for example, is that every sentence must have a complete verb. In English, we must say He is very tall even though the equivalent sentence in Chinese would have no verb.
这种规则和你经常用到的可能不一样。在语言学中，一种规则是描述事实上人们怎么说，而不是人们认为他们应该怎么说。（语言学经常通过寻找能够描述已存在语言的用法来解释这种规则，而并不是去规定人们应该怎么去用这用语言。）举个例子，一种基本的英语规则是每个句子必须有一个完整的动词。在英语里，我们必须说他非常高，即便同样的句子在中文就没有动词。
In addition, language as activity is governed by rules of another type, which are sometimes called “conversational rules”. When we bump into an acquaintance, we know we must greet him or her by saying How are you? or something equivalent because this is a rule of polite behavior. As we learn a language, we naturally acquire rules of both types, the ones governing language systems and those governing discourse activities.
另外，语言作为一种活动是被另外一类规则所规定，这种规定有时也叫做会话规则。当我们必须问候他或她，我们会说你好，或者相似的问候语来表达礼貌行为。当我们学习一种语言，我们自然而然的习得两种规则，一种规定语言系统，另一种规定谈话活动。
Ⅴ. Summary（总结）
When we study language in terms of sociology, we view it as social behavior, which is both dynamic and systematic. When we study language in terms of psychology, we view it as knowledge, both memory-based and rule-based.
当我们把语言作为社会学来研究，我们认为它是一种社会行为，既是动态的而且也是系统的。当我们把语言作为一种心理学来研究，我们认为它既是建立在记忆基础上的知识，而且也是建立在规则基础上的知识。
Activity and system, memory and rule, they are all crucial. We cannot ignore the importance of language as discourse activity when studying language as system, nor can we ignore the importance of language as memory when studying language as rule-governed psychological phenomenon.
活动和系统，记忆和规则，这些都是关键的。当我们把语言作为一种系统去研究时，我们不能忽视语言作为谈话活动的重要性。当我们把语言作为一种即定心理现象时，我们也不能忽视语言记忆的重要性。
1.2 课后习题详解
1. Still looking for a definition.
In this chapter, we made a point of not giving any one definition of language. But now we will give you a few to think about. Read each of the following definitions carefully and then discuss the following questions with a partner. What aspects of language does it seem to emphasize? What kind of person do you think wrote it—a linguist, a poet, a lexicographer, etc.? Which definition do you find most satisfying? Most interesting?
a) Language is a system of vocal-auditory communication interacting with the experiences of its users, employing conventional signs composed of arbitrarily patterned sound units and assembled according to set rules.
b) Language is a body of words and the systems for their use common to a people who are of the same community, nation, or geographical area.
c) Language is the landmass that is continuous under our feet and the feet of others and allows us to get to each other’s places.
d) Language is the force that has launched us beyond the limits of other species of primates and has enabled us to dominate our environment. It is nothing less than the prerequisite of our consciousness as human beings.
e) Language is the principal means of human communication.
Key: (1) The first definition stresses the features of language (arbitrary, conventional and patterned), its components (signs, sounds and rules) and function (communication with the experiences of its users). This definition is probably given by a linguist.
(2) The second definition stresses the users or speakers of language, that is, they may come from the same community or nation or any other geographical area. This definition is probably given by a lexicographer.
(3) The third definition compares language to the landmass under our feet and emphasizes its importance in life. This poetic definition is probably given by a writer.
(4) The fourth definition stresses the power of language: it makes us different from animals. This definition is probably given by an anthropologist.
(5) The fifth definition is simple but powerful. It emphasizes the function of language, i.e. it’s used for communication. This definition is probably given by an ordinary person.
The first definition seems most satisfying. It not only deals with the features and components of language but points out the function of language. The third definition is most interesting. The vivid comparison enables us to imagine that we are actually standing on the land of language and it’s the land we are standing on that make us understand each other.
2. Which “language” is language?
Each of the following sentences contains the word language. Read the sentence and identify whether the word, as used in the context, refers to language as activity or language as system. If it refers to language as system, does it refer to a system used by an individual, a group of people, a nation, or all human beings?
Compared with English, German is a difficult language.
The professor keeps using obscure language.
Aphasia means the loss of ability to use or to understand language.
Do you know what that word really means? You should be more careful with your language.
Psychologists use lots of big terms. Their language is difficult to understand.
The article is full of archaic language.
Young children are good at picking up a language.
The boy was scolded by his mother for using bad language.
Key: Compared with English, German is a difficult language. (System: a system used by a nation)
The professor keeps using obscure language. (Activity)
Aphasia means the loss of ability to use or to understand language. (System: a system used by all human beings)
Do you know what that word really means? You should be more careful with your language. (Activity)
Psychologists use lots of big terms. Their language is difficult to understand. (System: system used by a group of people)
The article is full of archaic language. (System: a system used by a group of people)
Young children are good at picking up a language. (System: a system used by a nation)
The boy was scolded by his mother for using bad language. (Activity)
3. Read the following letter and memo and explain what kind of social activity it creates. Think about questions such as: What is the intended goal of this encounter? Who are the people involved and what are the roles of each?
Bob Smith, my assistant programmer, can always be found hard at work in his cubicle. Bob works independently, without wasting company time talking to colleagues. Bob never thinks twice about assisting fellow employees, and he always finishes given assignments on time. Often Bob takes extended measures to complete his work, sometimes skipping coffee breaks. Bob is a dedicated individual who has absolutely no vanity in spite of his high accomplishments and profound knowledge in his field. I firmly believe that Bob can be classed as a high-caliber employee, the type which cannot be dispensed with. Consequently, I duly recommend that Bob be promoted to executive management, and a proposal will be sent away as soon as possible.
*Project Leader
A MEMO WAS SOON SENT, FOLLOWING THE LETTER:
That stupid idiot was reading over my shoulder when I wrote the report sent to you earlier today. Kindly read every second line (i.e.1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... ) for my true assessment of him.
Regards,
*Project Leader
Key: (1) The intended goal is to disadvantage Bob Smith in getting the position of executive management. In the recommendation letter, the project leader used appropriate language to present a positive image of Bob so that he might get the promotion. However, the truth is that Bob was not as competent as described in the letter and the leader didn’t want him to be promoted. Nevertheless, he had to write all the flattering words to avoid the embarrassment because Bob is just looking at him while he is writing. To remedy the situation, he sent a memo afterwards when Bob stopped looking at him, claiming that what he said in the letter was not true and was full of sarcasm.
(2) The people involved include Bob Smith, the project manager and a leader responsible for the promotion. Bob is the one waiting to be promoted; the project manager is supposed to write a recommendation letter for Bob but somehow implies some bad things about Bob; the leader receiving the letter and memo has the right to decide whether Bob can be promoted or not.
4. Recall some of the speech errors you made when you are learning to speak Chinese (or some of the errors you have heard young children make when they are learning to speak). Share them with the class. Together, think about how you can best categorize each of these errors.
Key: The errors can be categorized according to where the errors occur. For example, when young children are learning Chinese, they often commit some errors in the use of quantifiers. E.g. To express a fish, a child may say yi tou yu (一个鱼) instead of yi tiao yu (一条鱼), likewise, s/he may also say yi zhi mian bao (一只面包) rather than yi kuai mian bao (一块面包). Besides, they may commit phonetic errors, since gege (哥哥) is often pronounced as duoduo and laoshi (老师) as laoxi.
5. The following anecdote is based on a true story.
A professor from Tanzania attended an African studies conference and saw an American linguist giving a presentation on the grammar of Swahili, a language which is widely spoken in his home country. The speaker made remarkably clear many aspects of the structure of Swahili that have been difficult even for native speakers of the language to explain. During a break, the Tanzanian professor approached the American and began congratulating him in Swahili for his terrific work. The linguist apologized in English, “Oh, I’m sorry. I don’t speak Swahili.”
Explanation: The American professor who came up with the insights on Swahili couldn’t have done it by himself. When studying a language, linguists gather all sorts of data (words, sentences, recorded speech, etc.) and then analyze them, often relying on the help of native speakers. Being a “vivisector” does not automatically make one a good language learner, although it is a good start.
Discuss: What strengths could you have in doing research on English in comparison with professional linguists and native speakers of English?
Key: In comparison with professional linguists, I have easier access to relevant corpora, since I am still a learner myself and may come across different problems, which can be the research goals of linguistic study. Compared with native speakers of English, I can sense the differences between Chinese and English and explore them in research.
6. We mentioned that the classification of Chinese characters as logograms is something of an oversimplification. There are, in fact, different kinds of logograms. For instance, 木 functions much like a pictogram, but if you have two 木’s 林 is more likely representing a concept (i.e., “many trees”) than a picture; thus, it is close to being an ideogram.
If we look at the character 城, the left half of it is ideographic, but the other half is perhaps syllabic, representing the sound. In small groups, think of two or three characters that fit into each of these categories.
Key: For example, (1) 人 functions like a pictogram, but if three 人’s are put together as 众, it is more likely representing a concept (many people), thus, it is close to be an ideogram; 口 functions as a pictogram, but if three 口’s are put together, it is more likely representing a concept (type; to evaluate), thus it is close to an ideogram. (2) For the character 伟, the left half is ideographic, but the other half is syllabic. the same is true for 挎, the left half is ideographic, but the other half is syllabic.
7. If the writing system of the Chinese language is to be romanized (i.e., represented by an alphabetic system), how would we write the following?
建立 简历 尖利 监理
What difficulty does this present? What difficulties will native speakers of English encounter when they learn written Chinese? How are these difficulties similar to or different from the ones that we encountered when learning written Chinese in primary school?
Key: (1) The four words may look exactly the same if Chinese is romanized. It presents the difficulty in studying Chinese homonyms. There is no way to differentiate the four words: they have the same spelling (jianli) and the same pronunciation, since stress is clearly not enough for the four words.
(2) When English native speakers are learning written Chinese, it is probably very difficult for them to tell apart words with similar pronunciation but different tones, because Chinese is a tonal language, with different tones representing different meanings. However, there are no tones in English. English speakers may find it perplexed in front of the four tones. This is a little different from the one we come across when learning written Chinese in primary school because we have been familiar with different tones of the words from the very beginning and it would be much easier for them to distinguish these words.
第2章 英语语法
2.1 复习笔记
本章要点：
1. What do we mean by grammar?
语法起什么作用？
2. What is a morpheme?
什么是语素？
3. What is a word?
什么是单词？
4. Organization of grammar in English
英语语法的组织结构
本章考点：
语法的作用；什么是语素（语素的定义）；什么是单词（单词的定义）；名词短语；动词短语；形容词短语；副词短语；并列句；从属句；嵌入式从句
本章内容索引：
Ⅰ. What do we mean by grammar?
Ⅱ. What is a morpheme?
1. The definition of morpheme
2. Types of Morphemes
(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme
① Free morpheme
② Bound morpheme
(2) Affix, root and stem
① Affix
② Root and stem
(3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix
Ⅲ. What is a word?
1. The definition of Word
2. The definition of compound Word
Ⅳ. Organization of grammar in English
1. Group
(1) Nominal group
(2) Verbal group
① The role of X-words
② Particles and phrasal verbs
③ Tense and aspect
(3) Adverbial group
2. Clauses
(1) The definition of a clause
(2) The structure of a clause
(3) The components of a clause
① Defining the predicate
试读结束[说明：试读内容隐藏了图片]