作者：John Lord
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Volume 04Imperial Antiquity试读：
BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.
BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE," ETC., ETC.
CONTENTS
CYRUS THE GREAT.ASIATIC SUPREMACY.
The Persian EmpirePersia ProperOrigin of the PersiansThe Religion of the IraniansPersian CivilizationPersian rulersYouth and education of CyrusPolitical Union of Persia and MediaThe Median EmpireEarly Conquests of CyrusThe Lydian EmpireCroesus, King of LydiaWar between Croesus and CyrusFate of CroesusConquest of the Ionian CitiesConquest of BabylonAssyria and BabyloniaSubsequent conquests of CyrusHis kindness to the JewsCharacter of CyrusCambyses; Darius HystaspesXerxesFall of the Persian EmpireAuthoritiesJULIUS CAESAR.
IMPERIALISM.
Caesar an instrument of ProvidenceHis family and personEarly manhood; marriage; profession; ambitionCurule magistrates; the Roman SenateOnly rich men who control elections ordinarily electedVenality of the peopleCaesar borrows money to bribe the peopleElected QuaestorGains a seat in the SenateSecond marriage, with a cousin of PompeyCaesar made Pontifex Maximus; elected PraetorSent to Spain; military services in SpainElected Consul; his reforms; Leges JuliaeOpposition of the AristocracyAssigned to the province of GaulHis victories over the Gauls and GermansCharacter of the races he subduedAmazing difficulties of his campaignsReluctance of the Senate to give him the customary honorJealousy of the nobles; hostility between them and CaesarThe Aristocracy unfit to govern; their habits and mannersThey call Pompey to their aidNeither Pompey nor Caesar will disband his forces; Caesar recalledCaesar marches on Home; crosses the RubiconUltimate ends of Caesar; the civil warPompey's incapacity and indecision; flies to BrundusiCaesar defeats Pompey's generals in SpainDictatorship of CaesarBattle of PharsaliaDeath of Pompey in EgyptBattles of Thapsus and of MundaThey result in Caesar's supremacyHis services as EmperorHis habits and characterHis assassination,--its consequencesCauses of Imperialism,--its supposed necessity when Caesararose; public rebuke of Caesar by CiceroAn historical puzzleAuthorities
MARCUS AURELIUS.
THE GLORY OF ROME.
Remarkable character of Marcus AureliusHis parentage and educationAdopted by Antoninus PiusSubdues the barbarians of GermanyConsequences of the German WarsMistakes of Marcus Aurelius; CommodusPersecutions of the ChristiansThe "Meditations,"--their sublime StoicismEpictetus,--the influence of his writingsStyle and value of the "Meditations"Necessities of the EmpireIts prosperity under the Antonines; external gloriesIts internal weakness; seeds of ruinGibbon controverted by Marcus AureliusAuthorities
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.
CHRISTIANITY ENTHRONED.
Constantine and DiocletianInfluence of martyrdomsInfluence of Asceticism,--its fierce protestRise of ConstantineHis civil wars for the supremacy of the Roman worldThe rival Emperors and their fate: Maximinian, Galerius, Maxentius, Maximin, LiciniusConstantine sole Emperor over the West and EastFoundation of Constantinople,--its great advantageThe pomp and ceremony of the imperial CourtCrimes of Constantine; his virtuesConversion of ConstantineHis Christian legislation; edict of TolerationPatronage of the Clergy; union of Church and StateCouncil of NiceTheological discussionDoctrine of the TrinityAthanasius and AriusThe Nicene CreedEffect of philosophical discussions on theological truthsConstantine's work; the uniting of Church with StateDeath of ConstantineHis character and servicesAuthorities
PAULA.
WOMAN AS FRIEND.
Female friendshipPaganism unfavorable to friendshipCharacter of Jewish womenGreat Pagan womenPaula, her early lifeHer conversion to ChristianityHer asceticismAsceticism the result of circumstancesVirtues of PaulaHer illustrious friendsSaint Jerome and his great attainmentsHis friendship with PaulaHis social influence at RomeHis treatment of womenVanity of mere worldly friendship^Esthetic mission of womanElements of permanent friendshipNecessity of social equalityIllustrious friendshipsCongenial tastes in friendshipNecessity of Christian gracesSympathy as radiating from the CrossNecessity of some common end in friendshipThe extension of monastic lifeVirtues of early monastic lifePaula and Jerome seek its retreatsTheir residence in PalestineTheir travels in the EastTheir illustrious visitorsPeculiarities of their friendshipDeath of PaulaHer character and fameElevation of woman by friendshipAuthorities
CHRYSOSTOM.
SACRED ELOQUENCE.
The power of the PulpitEloquence always a powerThe superiority of the Christian themes to those of Pagan antiquitySadness of the great Pagan oratorsCheerfulness of the Christian preachersChrysostomEducationSociety of the timesChrysostom's conversion, and life in retirementLife at AntiochCharacteristics of his eloquence; his popularity as oratorHis influenceShelters Antioch from the wrath of TheodosiusPower and responsibility of the clergyTransferred to Constantinople, as Patriarch of the EastHis sermons, and their effect at CourtQuarrel with EutropiusEnvy of Theophilus of AlexandriaCouncil of the Oaks; condemnation to exileSustained by the people; recalledWrath of the EmpressExile of ChrysostomHis literary labors in exileHis more remote exile, and deathHis fame and influenceAuthorities
SAINT AMBROSE.
EPISCOPAL AUTHORITY.
Dignity of the Episcopal office in the early ChurchGrowth of Episcopal authority,--its causesThe See of Milan; election of Ambrose as ArchbishopHis early life and character; his great abilityChange in his life after consecrationHis conservation of the FaithPersecution of the ManicheansOpposition to the AriansHis enemies; FaustinaQuarrel with the EmpressEstablishment of Spiritual AuthorityOpposition to Temporal PowerAmbrose retires to his cathedral; Ambrosian chantRebellion of Soldiers; triumph of AmbroseSent as Ambassador to Maximus; his intrepidityHis rebuke of Theodosius; penance of the EmperorFidelity and ability of Ambrose as BishopHis private virtuesHis influence on succeeding agesAuthorities
SAINT AUGUSTINE.
CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.
Lofty position of Augustine in the ChurchParentage and birthEducation and youthful folliesInfluence of the Manicheans on himTeacher of rhetoricVisits RomeTeaches rhetoric at MilanInfluence of Ambrose on himConversion; Christian experienceRetreat to Lake ComoDeath of Monica his motherReturn to AfricaMade Bishop of Hippo; his influence as BishopHis greatness as a theologian; his vast studiesContest with Manicheans,--their character and teachingsControversy with the Donatists,--their peculiaritiesTracts: Unity of the Church and Religious TolerationContest with the Pelagians: Pelagius and CelestiusPrinciples of PelagianismDoctrines of Augustine: Grace; Predestination; Sovereignty of God; Servitude of the WillResults of the Pelagian controversyOther writings of Augustine: "The City of God;" Soliloquies; SermonsDeath and characterEulogists of AugustineHis posthumous influenceAuthorities
THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
LATTER DAYS OF ROME.
The mission of TheodosiusGeneral sense of security in the Roman worldThe Romans awake from their delusionIncursions of the GothsBattle of Adrianople; death of ValensNecessity for a great deliverer to arise; TheodosiusThe Goths,--their characteristics and historyElevation of Theodosius as Associate EmperorHe conciliates the Goths, and permits them to settle in the EmpireRevolt of Maximus against Gratian; death of GratianTheodosius marches against Maximus and subdues himRevolt of Arbogastes,--his usurpationVictories of Theodosius over all his rivals; the Empire once more united under a single manReforms of Theodosius; his jurisprudencePatronage of the clergy and dignity of great ecclesiasticsTheodosius persecutes the AriansExtinguishes Paganism and closes the templesCements the union of Church with StateFaults and errors of Theodosius; massacre of ThessalonicaDeath of TheodosiusDivision of the Empire between his two sonsRenewed incursions of the Goths,--Alaric; StilichoFall of Rome; Genseric and the VandalsSecond sack of RomeReflections on the Fall of the Western EmpireAuthorities
LEO THE GREAT.
FOUNDATION OF THE PAPACY.
Leo the Great,--founder of the Catholic EmpireGeneral aim of the Catholic ChurchThe Church the guardian of spiritual principlesTheocratic aspirations of the PopesOrigin of ecclesiastical power; the early PopesPrimacy of the Bishop of RomeNecessity for some higher claim after the fall of RomeEarly life of LeoElevation to the Papacy; his measures; his writingsHis persecution of the ManicheansConservation of the Faith by LeoIntercession with the barbaric kings; Leo's intrepidityDesolation of RomeDesigns and thoughts of LeoThe jus divinum principle; state of Rome when this principle was advocatedIts apparent necessityThe influence of arrogant pretensions on the barbariansThey are indorsed by the EmperorThe government of LeoThe central power of the PapacyUnity of the ChurchNo rules of government laid down in the ScripturesGovernments the result of circumstancesThe Papal government the need of the Middle AgesThe Papacy in its best periodGreatness of Leo's character and aimsFidelity of his early successors, and perversions of later PopesAuthorities
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME IV.
The Conversion of Paula by St. Jerome. After the painting by L. Alma-Tadema.Archery Practice of a Persian King. After the painting by F.A. Bridgman.Tomyris Plunges the Head of the Dead Cyrus into a Vessel of Blood. After the painting by A. Zick.Julius Caesar. From the bust in the National Museum, Rome.Surrender of Vercingetorix, the Last Chief of Gaul. After the painting by Henri Motte.Marcus Aurelius. From a photograph of the statue at the Capitol, Rome.Persecution of Christians in the Roman Arena. After the painting by G. Mantegazza.St. Jerome in His Cell. After the painting by J.L. Gérôme.St. Chrysostom Condemns the Vices of the Empress Eudoxia. After the painting by Jean Paul Laurens.St. Ambrose Refuses the Emperor Theodosius Admittance to His Church. After the painting by Gebhart Fügel.St. Augustine and His Mother. After the painting by Ary Scheffer.Invasion of the Goths into the Roman Empire. After the painting by O. Fritsche.Invasion of the Huns into Italy. After the painting by V. Checa.
BEACON_LIGHTS_OF_HISTORY
CYRUS THE GREAT.559-529 B.C.
ASIATIC SUPREMACY.
One of the most prominent and romantic characters in the history of the Oriental world, before its conquest by Alexander of Macedon, is Cyrus the Great; not as a sage or prophet, not as the founder of new religious systems, not even as a law-giver, but as the founder and organizer of the greatest empire the world has seen, next to that of the Romans. The territory over which Cyrus bore rule extended nearly three thousand miles from east to west, and fifteen hundred miles from north to south, embracing the principal nations known to antiquity, so that he was really a king of kings. He was practically the last of the great Asiatic emperors, absorbing in his dominions those acquired by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Lydians. He was also the first who brought Asia into intimate contact with Europe and its influences, and thus may be regarded as the link between the old Oriental world and the Greek civilization.
It is to be regretted that so little is really known of the Persian hero, both in the matter of events and also of exact dates, since chronologists differ, and can only approximate to the truth in their calculations. In this lecture, which is in some respects an introduction to those that will follow on the heroes and sages of Greek, Roman, and Christian antiquity, it is of more importance to present Oriental countries and institutions than any particular character, interesting as he may be,--especially since as to biography one is obliged to sift historical facts from a great mass of fables and speculations.
Neither Herodotus, Xenophon, nor Ctesias satisfy us as to the real life and character of Cyrus. This renowned name represents, however, the Persian power, the last of the great monarchies that ruled the Oriental world until its conquest by the Greeks. Persia came suddenly into prominence in the middle of the seventh century before Christ. Prior to this time it was comparatively unknown and unimportant, and was one of the dependent provinces of Media, whose religion, language, and customs were not very dissimilar to its own.
Persia was a small, rocky, hilly, arid country about three hundred miles long by two hundred and fifty wide, situated south of Media, having the Persian Gulf as its southern boundary, the Zagros Mountains on the west separating it from Babylonia, and a great and almost impassable desert on the east, so that it was easily defended. Its population was composed of hardy, warlike, and religious people, condemned to poverty and incessant toil by the difficulty of getting a living on sterile and unproductive hills, except in a few favored localities. The climate was warm in summer and cold in winter, but on the whole more temperate than might be supposed from a region situated so near the tropics,--between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth degrees of latitude. It was an elevated country, more than three thousand feet above the sea, and was favorable to the cultivation of the fruits and flowers that have ever been most prized, those cereals which constitute the ordinary food of man growing in abundance if sufficient labor were spent on their cultivation, reminding us of Switzerland and New England. But vigilance and incessant toil were necessary, such as are only found among a hardy and courageous peasantry, turning easily from agricultural labors to the fatigues and dangers of war. The real wealth of the country was in the flocks and herds that browsed in the valleys and plains. Game of all kinds was abundant, so that the people were unusually fond of the pleasures of the chase; and as they were temperate, inured to exposure, frugal, and adventurous, they made excellent soldiers. Nor did they ever as a nation lose their warlike qualities,--it being only the rich and powerful among them who learned the vices of the nations they subdued, and became addicted to luxury, indolence, and self-indulgence. Before the conquest of Media the whole nation was distinguished for temperance, frugality, and bravery. According to Herodotus, the Persians were especially instructed in three things,--"to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth." Their moral virtues were as conspicuous as their warlike qualities. They were so poor that their ordinary dress was of leather. They could boast of no large city, like the Median Ecbatana, or like Babylon,--Pasargadae, their ancient capital, being comparatively small and deficient in architectural monuments. The people lived chiefly in villages and hamlets, and were governed, like the Israelites under the Judges, by independent chieftains, none of whom attained the rank and power of kings until about one hundred years before the birth of Cyrus. These pastoral and hunting people, frugal from necessity, brave from exposure, industrious from the difficulty of subsisting in a dry and barren country, for the most sort were just such a race as furnished a noble material for the foundation of a great empire.
Whence came this honest, truthful, thrifty race? It is generally admitted that it was a branch of the great Aryan family, whose original settlements are supposed to have been on the high table-lands of Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, probably in Bactria. They emigrated from that dreary and inhospitable country after Zoroaster had proclaimed his doctrines, after the sacred hymns called the Gathas were sung, perhaps even after the Zend-Avesta or sacred writings of the Zoroastrian priests had been begun,--conquering or driving away Turanian tribes, and migrating to the southwest in search of more fruitful fields and fertile valleys, they found a region which has ever since borne a name--Iran--that evidently commemorated the proud title of the Aryan race. And this great movement took place about the time that another branch of their race also migrated southeastwardly to the valleys of the Indus. The Persians and the Hindus therefore had common ancestors,--the same indeed, as those of the Greeks, Romans, Sclavonians, Celts, and Teutons, who migrated to the northwest and settled in Europe. The Aryans in all their branches were the noblest of the primitive races, and have in their later developments produced the highest civilization ever attained. They all had similar elements of character, especially love of personal independence, respect for woman, and a religious tendency of mind. We see a considerable similarity of habits and customs between the Teutonic races of Germany and Scandinavia and the early inhabitants of Persia, as well as great affinity in language. All branches of the Aryan family have been warlike and adventurous, if we may except the Hindus, who were subjected to different influences,--especially of climate, which enervated their bodies if it did not weaken their minds.
When the migration of the Iranians took place it is difficult to determine, but probably between fifteen hundred and two thousand years before our era, although it may have been even five hundred years earlier than that. All theories as to their movements before their authentic history begins are based on conjecture and speculation, which it is not profitable to pursue, since we can settle nothing in the present state of our knowledge.
It is very singular that the Iranians should have had, after their migrations and settlements, religious ideas and systems so different from those of the Hindus, considering that they had common ancestors. The Iranians, including the Medes as well as Persians, accepted Zoroaster as their prophet and teacher, and the Zend-Avesta as their sacred books, and worshipped one Supreme Deity, whom they called Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd),--the Lord Omniscient,--and thus were monotheists; while the Hindus were practically poly-theists, governed by a sacerdotal caste, who imposed gloomy austerities and sacrifices, although it would seem that the older Vedistic hymns of the Hindus were theistic in spirit. The Magi--the priests of the Iranians--differed widely in their religious views from the Brahmans, inculcating a higher morality and a loftier theological creed, worshipping the Supreme Being without temples or shrines or images, although their religion ultimately degenerated into a worship of the powers of Nature, as the recognition of Mithra the sun-god and the mysterious fire-altars would seem to indicate. But even in spite of the corruptions introduced by the Magi when they became a powerful sacerdotal body, their doctrine remained purer and more elevated than the religions of the surrounding nations.
While the Iranians worshipped a supreme deity of goodness, they also recognized a supreme deity of evil, both ruling the world--in perpetual conflict--by unnumbered angels, good and evil; but the final triumph of the good was a conspicuous article of their faith. In close logical connection with this recognition of a supreme power in the universe was the belief of a future state and of future rewards and punishments, without which belief there can be, in my opinion, no high morality, as men are constituted.
In process of time the priests of the Zoroastrian faith became unduly powerful, and enslaved the people by many superstitions, such as the multiplication of rites and ceremonies and the interpretation of dreams and omens. They united spiritual with temporal authority, as a powerful priesthood is apt to do,--a fact which the Christian priesthood of the Middle Ages made evident in the Occidental world.
In the time of Cyrus the Magi had become a sort of sacerdotal caste. They were the trusted ministers of kings, and exercised a controlling influence over the people. They assumed a stately air, wore white and flowing robes, and were adept in the arts of sorcery and magic. They were even consulted by kings and chieftains, as if they possessed prophetic power. They were a picturesque body of men, with their mystic wands, their impressive robes, their tall caps, appealing by their long incantations and frequent ceremonies and prayers to the eye and to the ear. "Pure Zoroastrianism was too
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