一本书读懂世界史(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)

作者：张浩,黄一飞

出版社：中国时代经济出版社

格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT

一本书读懂世界史试读：

Part 1 Ancient History 古代史

Chapter 1 Where Are We From 第一章 我们从哪里来

1. Origin of the Human 人类的起源

The ape-man（formerly know as Homo erectus）is an extinctspecies of hominid that originated in Africa，and spread as far as India，China and Java，about 1.8 to 1.3 million years ago.

The first theory is that ape-man migrated from Africa during the Early Pleistocene，possibly as a result of the operation of the Saharan pump，around 2.0 million years ago，and dispersed throughout much of the Old World. Fossilized remains 1.8 to 1 million years old have been found in Africa（e.g.，Lake Turkana and Olduvai Gorge），Europe（Georgia and Spain），Indonesia（e.g.，Sangiran and Trinil），Vietnam，China（e.g.，Shaanxi）and India.

The second theory is that ape-man evolved in Asia and then migratedto Africa. The speciesoccupied a West Asian site called Dmanisi，in Georgia，from 1.85 million to 1.77 million years ago，at the same time or slightly before the earliest evidence in Africa. Excavations found 73 stone tools for cutting and chopping and 34 bone fragments from unidentified creatures.

猿人（也称直立人）是一个已经灭绝的古人类物种，约于1.8万至1.3万年前，起源于非洲，后迁徙至印度、中国和爪洼（今东南亚）等地区。

有一种理论认为猿人源于非洲，在早更新世晚期，距今约200万年左右，由于撒哈拉板块的运动和旧世界许多地方的分离而向外迁移。目前，已经在非洲（如图尔卡纳湖和奥杜威峡谷）、欧洲（格鲁吉亚和西班牙）、印度尼西亚（桑吉兰和特里尼尔）、越南、中国（如陕西）和印度等地发现其遗迹化石，距今约180～100万年。

第二个理论认为猿人起源于亚洲，并且在亚洲繁衍，然后迁移到非洲。该物种大约在185万到177万年前，在西亚的格鲁吉亚建立了一个定居点“德马尼斯”，这是这个时期或稍早时期猿人在非洲生存的最早证据。目前，已经发掘发现了73个用于切割和斩断不同物质的石制工具和34片动物碎骨。The Use of Fire and Tools 对火和工具的运用

Homo ergaster used more diverse and sophisticated stone tools than its predecessors，however，used comparatively primitivetools. H. ergaster refined inherited Oldowan technology developing the first Acheulean bifacial axes：while the use of Acheulean tools began ca. 1.6 million years ago，the line of H. erectus diverged some 200,000 years before the general innovation of Acheulean technology. Thus the Asian migratory descendants of H. ergaster made no use of any Acheulean technology. In addition，it has been suggested that H. erectus may have been the first hominid to use rafts to travel over.人类演化示意图图尔卡纳男孩

Sites in Europe and Asia seem to indicate controlled use of fire by H. erectus. A presentation at the Paleoanthropology Society annual meeting in Montreal，Canada in March 2004 stated that there is evidence for used and controlled fires in excavationsin northern Israel from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago. A site called Amata，located on the French Riviera，which lies on an ancient beach，seems to have been occupied by H. erectus；it contains the earliest evidence of controlled fire，dated at around 300,000 years BC.直立人下颌骨的模型，法国

猿人是在使用石器工具上比其先祖更加多样化和复杂化，不过，他们使用的工具依然比较原始，他们继承了奥杜威技术并首次发展其为阿舍利双面斧。他们首次使用这种工具是在旧石器时代早期，约160万年前。在普遍使用阿舍利技术（考古学上对于史前人类石器工艺技术的称呼）的20万年前，猿人就出现了分支，但猿人的亚洲移民后裔没有使用阿舍利技术。考古发现，这一阶段猿人第一次使用木筏旅行。

与此同时，欧洲和亚洲的一些发现也表明猿人有使用火的能力。2004年3月，在加拿大的蒙特利尔召开的古人类学年会中显示，在以色列北部一个距今约69万至79万年前的遗迹中找到了猿人控制火并使用火的证据。大概在公元前30万年，法国南海岸的一个古老海滩上名叫阿马塔的据点上已经有猿人居住，还有猿人使用火的证据。Ancient Hunter—Gatherers 古代狩猎者——采集者

The ape-man was probably an ancient hunter-gatherers' camp. And anthropologists such as Richard Leakey believe that it was more characteristic of modern humans than the south ape. At the same time，increased cranialcapacity generally coincides with the more sophisticated tools occasionally found with fossils.

The discovery of Turkana boy in 1984 gave evidence that，In the course of their anatomy，it may not have been capable of producing sounds comparable to modern human speech. Ergaster at least may have communicated with a prelanguage lacking the fully developed structure of modern human language，but more developed than the basic communication used by chimpanzees. Turkana boy's discovery show that the existence of Homo sapiens capabilities of vocal sound.

Facts have proved that the ape-man has a series of progressive characteristics greatly expanded its adaptability. Therefore，The ape-man do not like their ancestry，as only members of wandering in the wilderness of Africa，but in later years doggedly out of Africa，spread to vast areas of Asia and many parts of Europe.

猿人很可能是一个古代狩猎——采集者的“营地”。人类学家理查德·利基等认为，猿人比之前的南方古猿更具有现代人类的特征。科学家还发现了同时代的与猿人脑容量增加相符合的更为复杂的工具。

1984年，图尔卡纳男孩遗骨于肯尼亚被发现，在对其解剖的过程中发现，它当时可能还没有与现代人类语言发音相近的声音。其语言结构与现代人类的语言结构相比有一定的缺陷，但比黑猩猩使用的基本语言功能发达。图尔卡纳男孩的发现表明猿人声带发声功能的存在。

事实证明，猿人所具有的一系列进步性特征大大地扩大了其适应性。因此，猿人再不像他们之前的那些人科成员那样仅仅在非洲的原野上徘徊，而是在后来的岁月里顽强地走出了非洲，散布到亚洲的广大区域以及欧洲的许多地区。● Origin of the Human in Bible—Adam and Eve 圣经中人类的起源——亚当和夏娃亚当和夏娃

When God made the first man，he called him Adam and put him in a beautiful garden，the Garden of Eden. Here Adam lived in peace with all the animals. God gave Adam eternalife. But before God mad the first woman，Adam was lonely in the garden. When God saw that Adam was lonely，he madEve. God took a rib from Adam when he was asleep one night. From Adam's rib，God made Eve. Adam was happy when he woke up the next morning and found Eve next to him. God said to Adam and Eve.“Here in the garden you have everything，but you cannot have one thing：you cannot eat the apples from the Tree of Knowledge.”

One day Satan came to the Garden of Eden. He changed into a serpent and went to live in the Tree of Knowledge. When Eve came near the tree one day，the serpent called her. He gave her an apple and said，“Here. Take this apple and eat it. Don't listen to God. Eat it.”After Eve took a bite，she took the apple to Adam. He was afraid，but Eve repeated again and again，“It's good. Here. Eat it. Why not？”So he finally ate the apple.

Before they ate the apple，Adam and Eve did not know that they were naked. But after they ate the apple，they were ashamedand covered their bodies with leaves. God was angry with them. He said，“Leave the garden. You cannot stay here.”When Adam and Eve left the garden，they had their first experience of pain and hard work in the cold hard world outside.

在上帝造出第一个男人时，他给他起名为亚当，并将其放在一座美丽的伊甸园里。在这里，亚当和各种动物和睦相处。上帝给了亚当永恒的生命，但在他造出第一个女人之前，亚当一个人觉得很寂寞。上帝看到了亚当的寂寞，于是，一天夜里，上帝趁亚当睡着时从他身上取出一根肋骨，并用这根肋骨造出了第一个女人夏娃。第二天早上亚当醒来发现夏娃躺在他身旁时，非常高兴。上帝对亚当和夏娃说：“你们在园中什么都有。但有一样东西你们不能做：不能吃智慧树上的苹果。”

有一天，撒旦来到伊甸园，变成一条毒蛇盘绕在智慧树上。当夏娃来到树旁时，毒蛇把她叫过来，给了她一颗苹果说：“把这苹果拿去吃掉。不要听上帝的话，把它吃掉。”夏娃咬了一口之后把苹果带给亚当。亚当本来很害怕，但夏娃一再地说：“挺好的。来，把它吃掉。干吗不吃呢？”因此，最后他把苹果吃掉了。

在吃苹果之前，亚当和夏娃是不知道自己是赤身裸体的，吃了苹果之后，他们就感到难为情了，于是用树叶把身子遮了起来。上帝对他们恼怒了，他说：“离开伊甸园。你们不能再在这里居住了。”离开伊甸园之后，亚当和夏娃在外边寒冷艰难的世界里，第一次尝到了痛苦和艰苦劳动的滋味。

2. Make Fire for Civilization—Homo Sapiens 取火点燃文明——智人

Humans（known taxonomically as Homo sapiens，Latin for“wise man”or“knowing man”）are the only living species in the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae. They have a highly developed brain，capable of abstract reasoning，language，introspection，and problem solving. This capability combined with an erect body carriage that frees the hands for manipulating objects，has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other living species on Earth.

Like higher primates，humans are social animals. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression，the exchange of ideas，and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups，from families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values，social norms，and rituals，which together form the basis of human society.智人复原图，德国赫恩大约90万年前的智人家庭（印度尼西亚雅加达国家博物馆）

Humans are noted for their desire to understand and influence their environment，seeking to explain and manipulate phenomena through science，philosophy，mythology，and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills，which are passed down culturally.

人类（分类学上称为智人，为“智者”或“明知男子”的拉丁语）是类人猿家族中的唯一以两足行走的灵长类生物物种。他们拥有高度发达的大脑，并且具有思维能力、语言能力、反思能力和解决问题的能力，这些能力结合手可以控制肢体活动，使得人类比在地球上的其他物种，可以更大限度地使用工具。

与大多数最高级灵长类动物一样，人类是群居动物，是唯一擅长自我表达、交流思想并创立语言交流系统的物种。他们创造出了复杂的社会结构，从家庭到国家，有合作、有竞争。这些早期人类相互活动中所建立的价值观念、社会规范、礼仪共同构成了人类社会的基础。

通过科学、哲学、神话和宗教，人类表现出认识和改造自然的渴望，这种天生的好奇心，使得先进的工具得以应用、技术得以发展、文化获得传承。● The Development of Homo Sapiens 智人的发展

Anatomicallymodern humans evolved from archaic Homo sapiens in Africa in the Middle Paleolithic，about 200,000 years ago. By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period（50,000 before present），full behavioral modernity，including language，music and other cultural universals had developed.

Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to the“out-of-Africa”scenario，and has marginalized the competing multiregional hypothesis，which proposed that modern humans evolved，at least in part，from independent hominid populations.

Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene，the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs–no more than 10,000，and possibly as few as 1,000–resulting in a very small residual gene pool.

解剖学上的现代人类进化，大约是从20万年前中石器时代的非洲智人开始的。大约在旧石器时代早期（距今约5万年），智人完整的行为，包括语言、音乐和其他文化的共性都已经有所发展。

自20世纪90年代以来，人类基因学积累的证据给予了“向非洲外迁移”学说大力的支持，并且使多区域竞争的假设边缘化。多区域竞争的假设认为：现代人类的进化，至少在区域层面，是从各独立原始人群中进化的。

来自于犹他州大学的遗传学家琳·卓德和亨利·哈彭丁认为，人类DNA中变异的周期与其他物种相比，其实很短。他们还认为，在晚更新世期间（晚更新世也称上更新世，距今约13万年至1万年），人口基因减少到一个非常小的规模——不超过10,000，可能接近1,000，这是一个非常小的残余基因库。

3. Parents Take Turns to do Head of the Household—Matrilineal Society and Patrilineal Society 父母轮流当户主——母系氏族和父系氏族

In the early stages of Clan society，women has enjoyed high status in society，to grasp the leadership of the clan. Lineage inherited by women，children and grandchildren taken ownership the mother. Yangshao is generally believed that is China's stage of matriarchal society. Yi Luo Kuishi American Indians is a typical matriarchal clan community. After Clan member's death，the property owned by the same people all the clan. The same clan has obligated for mutual assistance，protection and revenge. In the period，people“only know his mother，do not know his father.”

Matriarchal society exists attribute to human beings for their own physiological phenomenon was not enough understanding and gender relations and reproduction is not to be linked，only know that their children and mothers have associated with blood，they don't know his father's presence，and his father do not know blood related. With the development of medicine，they found human gender relations and the inevitable link through children，and they thought male easier access to physical production and living conditions，to take on family responsibilities，men will gradually assume the responsibility of masters，matriarchal society gradually disappeared.

在氏族社会的早期阶段，女性在社会中享有很高的地位。她们掌握氏族的领导权，世系按女性继承，子孙归属母亲。一般认为中国的仰韶文化和美洲印第安人的易洛魁氏族就属于典型的母系氏族社会。母系氏族成员死后，其财产归同氏族的人所有。同氏族的人有互相援助、保护和共同复仇的义务。此时期，人们“只知其母，不知其父”。

母系氏族之所以存在是因为当时人类对于自身生理现象还没有足够的了解，没有把两性关系与繁衍后代联系起来，只知道子女与母亲有血缘关联，而不知道父亲的作用，更不知道与父亲之间的血缘关联。随着医学的发展，当人类发现两性关系与生儿育女之间的必然联系时，他们认为男性生理条件更容易获得生产生活资料，承担家族责任，所以男性也就逐渐担负起当家做主的责任，母系氏族社会就此消亡了。● Patrilineality 父系氏族

As the further development of agriculture and handicrafts，men's position and influence in production growing，it occurring social center's improvement，therefore，matriarchal clan society and patriarchal society is a necessary requirement for the development of social productive forces. Patrilineal society is a new social and cultural system，but also one of the most profound changes in history. This change adapts to the development of the productive forces.

In patrilineal societies，men hold higher property and social status than women. Family and marriage relations transfer from by matriarchal society“the wife home”to“patrilocal residence，”children naturally are the member of matriarchal society no longer a member of a parent clan members，to become the successor to his father property. With the development of social productivity and the Leave of the fruits of labor，some people can share the fruits of labor of others，and use the labor share of the wealth servitude to others，so the phenomenon of wealth，private property began to grow. Changes in the disparity created the basis of class，the late clan society began to collapse，class society began to appear.

由于农业和手工业的进一步发展，男子在生产中的地位和作用越来越大，社会中心自然发生偏移，因此，母系氏族社会和父系氏族社会，是社会生产力发展的必然产物。父系氏族社会是一种新的社会文化体系，也是人类历史上发生的最深刻变革之一。这种变革是同当时生产力的发展相适应的。非洲母系氏族

在父系氏族社会中，男性的财产权和社会地位高于女性，家庭婚姻关系也由母系氏族社会的“从妻居”改变为“从夫居”，子女自然也不再属于母系氏族的成员而成为父系氏族的成员，成为父亲财产的继承者。随着社会生产力的发展和劳动成果的剩余，一些人能够占有他人的劳动成果，并利用这些成果役使他人，于是，贫富现象出现，私有财产开始萌芽。贫富悬殊的变化是阶级产生的基础，到父系氏族社会的后期，氏族社会开始土崩瓦解，阶级社会开始出现。

4. The Legend of the Great Flood 大洪荒的传说

A flood myth or deluge myth is a mythical or religious story of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution. It is a theme widespread among many cultures，though it is perhaps best known in modern times through the biblical and Quranic account of Noah's Ark，the Hindu puranic story of Manu，through Deucalion in Greek mythology or Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh.

洪水神话或洪荒传说是关于神引发大洪水的神话或宗教故事，讲的是一场大洪水毁灭人类文明的故事，是上帝或神为了处罚人类而进行的一场破坏。洪水神话在世界上许多文化中都是一个广泛流行的主题——尽管它也许因为近代印度教马努的故事、圣经和古兰经中的诺亚方舟、希腊神话中的丢卡利翁、吉尔伽美什史诗中的阿特拉哈西斯以及中国的大禹治水而更为人知。● Greek Mythology：Deucalion and Flood 希腊神话：丢卡利翁与洪水

Towards the end of the Age of Bronze，people in world became very cruel，hungry，impolite and ungodly. Neither righteous or law was respected any longer，and the rule of hospitality was forgotten.

One day，Dressed up in human form，Zeus visited Arcadia and Thessaly. Hating the deadly wrong of men，he decided to clear the earth of them. Without hesitation，he brought the rainy south wind and called upon the heartless Poseidon to help. Soon the whole world sank in a vast ocean，and the entire human race disappeared in the unheard of flood，all but two poor Thessalians.

These were an old couple，kind and faithful and contented with life. The man was called Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha. Son of Prometheus，Deucalion had been warned beforehandby his father of the coming flood and made himself a huge chest. When the roaring flood came，the couple hid themselves in it and floated for nine days until it touched land again on Mt Parnassus.

The active world presented a frightening sight. It was all death and ruin. Feeling lonely and unsafe，the old couple prayed to the gods for help. A sage instructed them to cast the bones of their mother. They having guessed the true meaning of the mysterious command，started throwing stones behind him. A miracle occurred. The stones that the man cast became men；the stones that the woman threw turned into women. Since then，people appeared on the land again. The Heroic Age had begun.

到了青铜期末代，人类世界变得非常残忍、贪婪、粗鲁且不虔诚。公理与法律不再受到尊重。殷勤好客的风俗被遗忘。

一日，宙斯装扮成凡人的样子视察阿卡迪亚和色萨利两地。他不喜欢凡人极度的罪恶，决心将他们从地球上铲除。他毫不犹豫地释放了夹雨的南风，并召来冷酷无情的波塞冬协助他，很快整个人类世界淹没在一片汪洋之中。除了两名恭顺的色萨利人幸免于难外，人类被史无前例的洪水吞噬。

这对色萨利老夫妻善良、虔诚、对生活心满意足。这个丈夫是普罗米修斯的儿子，名叫丢卡利翁，他的妻子名为皮拉。丢卡利翁的父亲事先就警告他会爆发洪水，因此，他特意做了个巨大的箱子。当咆哮的洪水涌来时，夫妻俩就躲藏在箱中，这样漂泊了九天，最终漂到了帕那萨斯山。

曾经生机勃勃的大地呈现出恐怖的景象。死亡与毁灭四处蔓延。老夫妻深感孤独和危险。他们就向上帝祈祷，乞求帮助。一位圣人指示他们把母亲的遗骨掷向四周。他们马上悟出了这个神秘指示所隐含的意义。他们开始将石头抛向身后。奇迹出现了，男人抛出的石头变成了男人，女人抛的则变成了女人。从此人类再次在陆地上出现，英雄时代也随之来临。北美印第安人的大洪水传说大禹治水● Emperor Yu Tames the Flood 大禹治水

It is said that Yu the Great was the chief of the legendary Xiahou clan. He was originally called Yu or Xiayu. The Yellow River flooded during the reign of Emperor Yao（Yanhuang tribal alliance's first leader），water washed away villages and house，the people were forced to abandon their villages，and go to live in trees or on mountaintops. The flood brought great misery to the people. At that time，Emperor Yao appointed Gun to tame the flood. Gun built dikes to keep back the water，but failed.

After Yao，Shun became the leader of the tribal alliance，he killed Gun，and appointed Gun's son Yu to continue with the flood-harnessing work. Yu learned lessons from Gun，Switching the dredging method to lead the flood waters to flow along river courses into the sea. Yu worked very hard. It was said that he spent 13 years taming the floods；he passed through his home three times，but did not enter. Finally，Yu subdued the floods. As a result of his successful efforts，the people bestowed on him the title“Yu the Great”and Shun chose Yu as his successor，with the approval of the tribal leader. After Shun's death，Yu became the leader of tribal alliances.

At that time the flood had just put down，vegetation lush，and wild beasts grew rampant，threatening the survival of the people. Yu sent someone to teach people how to dominate the land and feed themselves in a regular and organized way. People's lives gradually settle down. Then，Yu has launched a war on Miao，to prevent them from entering the Yellow River Basin；Huaxia consolidated position in the Central Plains region.

About 2070 BC，Yu established the Xia Dynasty，the first dynasty in Chinese history. After Yu's death，his son Qi succeeded to the throne，cause“Youhu”clan revolt. Crushing an attempt to overthrow him by the Youhu clan，his status has been recognized by tribes. From then on，system of hereditary was overthrown by the leader of the kingdom of shang. The Xia Dynasty lasted over 400 years，ultimately fallen down because of political decay.

相传，大禹是夏后氏部落的首领，原称“禹”，也称“夏禹”。帝尧（炎黄部落联盟的第一位首领）时，黄河发大水，水冲毁了村庄和房屋，人民被迫离开村庄，他们只能住到树上和山顶上。洪水给人们带来了巨大的灾难。那时，尧任用鲧治理洪水，鲧采用筑堤堵水的办法治水，遭到了失败。

尧之后，担任部落联盟首领的舜杀死了鲧，然后命令鲧的儿子禹继续治水。禹吸取了鲧的教训，改用疏导的方法治水，让洪水顺河道流向大海。禹辛勤地在外治水13年，三次经过家门都没有时间进去看看。最后，禹终于制服了水患。人们感谢禹，尊称他为“大禹”。由于他治水成功，舜征得各部落首领的同意，推举禹为继承人。舜死后，禹便成为部落联盟的首领。

那时洪水刚刚平定，草木茂盛，野兽危害人民，禹派人教百姓开辟耕地，收获粮食。人民的生活渐渐安定下来。之后，禹又对苗族发动战争，阻止他们进入黄河流域，巩固了华夏族在中原地区的地位。

约公元前2070年，禹建立夏朝，是中国历史上第一个王朝。后来禹死了，他的儿子启继承了禹的位置，引起有扈氏部落的反抗。启打败了有扈氏以后，他的地位得到了各部落的承认。从此世袭制代替了禅让制。夏朝历经400多年，最终因政治腐朽而灭亡。

Chapter 2 The Gift of the Nile 第二章 尼罗河的赠礼

1. Three Thousand Years of Heritage—Ancient Egypt 三千多年的传承——古埃及

Ancient Egypt is located in northeast Africa，the Nile River region，a time span of nearly 3,000 years of ancient civilization. Much of the land is desert. But the River Nile，the longest river in the world，runs through the desert. Egypt has been called“the gift of the Nile”. Without the Nile valley，very few people could live in that country. The Nile valley was so fertile that the Egyptians had two or three harvests each year.

With plenty of food，the people did not have to work so hard. They had a lot of free time. That is why the civilization of Egypt began in the Nile valley. The fine cities，Temples and pyramids of ancient Egypt were built on the banks of the Nile. Trade developed along the Nile too. Life in ancient Egypt was more peaceful than life in Summer. Egypt was safer because it had sea and desert round it. This made it difficult for invaders to conquer it. It was much easier for invaders to reach Sumer.

古埃及是位于非洲东北角尼罗河中下游地区的时间跨度近3000年的古代文明，其国土多为沙漠，但是世界上最长的河流——尼罗河，却纵贯整个沙漠。埃及一直被称为“尼罗河的赠礼”。要是没有尼罗河，就不会有多少人生活在这里。尼罗河流域相当肥沃，因此，早期埃及人在此种植的庄稼可以一年两熟或三熟。

由于粮食充裕，所以人们不必拼命劳作，因此他们就有了许多闲暇时间。这也是埃及文明之所以始于尼罗河流域的原因。在古埃及，那些精美的城市、庙宇以及金字塔均建于尼罗河两岸。贸易也是沿尼罗河而发展的。与苏美尔相比，在古埃及，人们的生活很安宁，也较为安全，原因在于其周围有海洋和沙漠环绕。这就使得侵略者难以入侵这片土地。相反，侵略者要想到达苏美尔却要容易得多。History 历史

The time-chart below shows the important events of ancient Egyptian history.

下述时间表列出了古埃及历史上发生的重大事件。Government 政府

In the beginning，the Egyptians belonged to different tribes. The tribes were slowly brought together into two kingdoms：Lower Egypt in the north and Upper Egypt joined the two kingdoms into 金字塔的内部结构one. In 3200 BC，the King of Lower Egypt consisted of the two Kingdoms as a whole，he was the first Pharaoh. The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was not only their king but also one of their gods. Nobody could disagree with him. The pharaohs owned all the land. They made all the laws and controlled the Egyptian army. Their power was passed from father to son. Altogether，thirty families，or dynasties ruled ancient Egypt.

埃及人起初分属不同的部落，后来，这些部落逐渐联合为两个王国，即北部的下埃及和南部的上埃及。大约在公元前3200年，上埃及国王米诺斯将两个王国合而为一，他是第一位法老。埃及人认为，法老不仅是王。而且是神，任何人都不能与他相违抗。全国的土地均属法老，所有的法律皆由法老制定，埃及军队法老控制，他们的权力父子相传。先后共有30个家族（王朝）统治过古埃及。Economic Life 经济生活

In many ways，economic life in ancient Egypt was like life in Sumer. Most of the early Egyptians were farmers. They invented the plough. It was pulled by oxen guided by a man. Like the Sumerians，the Egyptians kept cattle and sheep. The Egyptians learned to water their land in a clever way. They developed an irrigation system. They dug little canals that carried the water from the river to their fields.

The Egyptians were good at working with metal. They made tools and weapons from copper and bronze.

古代埃及人的经济生活在诸多方面类似于苏美尔人的生活。早期埃及人大都从事农耕。他们发明了犁。犁用牛拉，而牛则由一名男子在前牵引。与苏美尔人一样，埃及人也饲养牛羊。埃及人还学会了一种聪明的方法来灌溉土地，他们开发出一种灌溉系统，他们开挖小型沟渠，然后将水由大河引入农田。

埃及人善于金属制造。他们用铜和青铜来制造工具和武器。Building and Art 建筑与艺术

Almost all Egyptian buildings，carvings and paintings had a religious purpose. Many of the ancient Egyptian buildings are still there today because they are made of stone. Many of the pyramids can still be seen along the Nile now，4000 years after they were built. The most famous and biggest pyramid is the Great Pyramid built by Khufu，a pharaoh of the Old Kingdom. It took about 100,000 men twenty years to built it. The ancient Greeks included it among the Sever Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders still standing today.

The Egyptians also built huge temples of stone. The most famous are the Temple of Karnak and the Temple of Luxor. The Egyptians built these huge pyramids and temples without the machines and tools used today. This is why the Egyptians are called the greatest builders in history.

The Egyptians were also great sculptors. Many of their statues were very large. They were often carved out of rock. The best example is the Great Sphinx. It has the body of a lion and the face of a man who was full of carvings and pictures. They show people in market places，people dancing and playing musical instruments，and people at work. They tell us a lot about the daily life of the ancient Egyptians.

埃及人所有的建筑、雕刻和绘画几乎都有自己的宗教意图。古埃及的许多建筑物至今仍然耸立在那里，这是因为他们是由石头建成的。在尼罗河两岸，如今仍可见到许多金字塔，而这些金字塔从建成至今已经有4000多年的历史了。最为有名且最大的金字塔是由古王国法老胡夫下令建造的。大约花费10万人用了20年时间才建成。古希腊人称之为“古代世界七大奇迹”，他也是唯一一个保存至今的建筑。

埃及人还用石头建造了大型的庙宇。最为著名的是卡纳克神庙和卢克索神庙。埃及人在建造这些巨型的金字塔和庙宇的时候，并没有我们今天所使用的机器和工具。这正是埃及人被称为历史最伟大的建筑师的原因所在。金字塔

埃及人还是伟大的雕塑家，他们所创作的雕像有许多都很庞大。这些雕像通常都是由岩石雕刻而成的。最为著名就是狮身人面像。他有狮子一样的躯体，而却有着一张人脸，这个人可能就是法老。古代埃及人的墓碑上布满了各种雕刻和绘画。这些作品描绘了在市场做生意之人，跳舞和演奏的人，使我们了解许多有关古埃及人日常生活方面的情况。Science 科学

The Egyptians were the first people to develop mathematics. They needed it to build pyramids and to know the size of each man's land. Every time the waters of the Nile rose，land boundaries were destroyed. Every time the flood waters went down，the land had to be measured to make the boundaries again. To do this，the Egyptians learned arithmetic and geometry.

The Egyptians also had to know when the Nile was going to flood. So they had to know the seasons of the year. They invented a calendar of 365 days. It was the world's first calendar based on the movement of the sun. The calendar we use is like the Egyptian calendar. The Egyptians were also the first people to use the 24-hour day. They invented clocks using water and the shadow of the sun to tell the time.

埃及人是最早开发利用数学知识的民族。要想建造金字塔，要想知道每个人所拥有的土地面积大小，他们就必须具备数学知识。尼罗河水每次上涨，地界都要被冲塌。每当洪水退去，对土地都要进行重新测量以重新划定地界。为了完成这一工作，埃及人逐步掌握一些算术和几何学知识。

埃及人也必须掌握尼罗河发洪水的时间。因此，他们也就必须要了解一年当中的季节变换。他们发明出一种以365天为单位的历法。这是世界上第一个根据太阳运行规律而制定的历法。我们今天所使用的历法与埃及人的历法非常相似。埃及人还是世界上最早将一天分为24小时的民族。他们发明了时钟、即利用水滴和日影来报时。Development of Writing 文字的发展

The Egyptians developed a system of picture-writing called hieroglyphics. The Egyptians wrote on papyrus rolls. Papyrus is a water plant. There was a lot of it along the Nile. To make long papyrus rolls，the Egyptians split the papyrus reeds into strips and stuck them together. The word ‘paper’ comes from the word ‘papyrus’.

What the Egyptians wrote on was the world's first paper. Their papyrus rolls were the world's first books. Hieroglyphic writings can be seen on the Rosetta Stone（196 B.C.）. It was discovered at the mouth of the Nile in A.D.1799. In 1822，a Frenchman discovered what the hieroglyphics meant. His discovery helped historians to learn a lot about ancient Egypt.

埃及人发展出一种图画文字系统，这种文字叫做象形文字。埃及人在纸莎卷之上进行书写。纸莎草是一种水生植物，尼罗河两岸盛产此种植物。为了能够制造长长的纸莎卷纸，埃及人便将纸莎草心髓劈成薄片，然后将之粘连起来。“纸张”（paper）就是由纸莎草（papyrus）演化而来的。

埃及人用于用的纸是世界上最早的纸，他们的纸莎卷宗是世界上最早的书籍。从“罗塞达碑”（制作公元前196年）上可以看到用象形文字书写的作品。该碑在公元1799年发现于尼罗河口。1822年，一位法国人成功的释读了这些象形文字的含义，他的这一发现有助于历史学家对古埃及有更多的了解。The Decline on Egypt 埃及的衰落

During the period of the empire，Egypt became the richest and most powerful nation in the Middle East. By the 12th century BC，the Egyptian Empire began to lose its power. In 525 BC，Egypt was conquered by the Persians. From then on，the Egyptian civilization，which had lasted for about 3000 years declined.

在帝国时期，埃及成为中东最富庶的、实力最强的国家。到公元前12世纪，埃及帝国开始衰败。公元前525年，埃及为波斯人征服。从那以后，延续达3000年左右的埃及文明便衰落了。吉萨金字塔群区地图

2. First Wonder of the World—Pyramid 世界奇迹之首——金字塔

There are 138 pyramidsdiscovered in Egypt by 2008. Most pyramids were built as tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consortsduring the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The earliest Egyptian pyramids—the Pyramid of Djoser（constructed 2630 BC～2611 BC），are found at Saqqara，northwest of Memphis. It was built during the third dynasty.

至2008年，在埃及共有138座金字塔被发现。建造于古王国和中王国时期的金字塔，大部分都是古埃及的法老及其后妃的墓葬。已知最早的埃及金字塔——左塞尔金字塔（公元前2630～2611年建造）被发现于孟菲斯西北的萨卡拉，是第三王朝时建造。● List of Famous Pyramids 著名金字塔一览Abu Rawash 阿布拉瓦须金字塔

Abu Rawash is one of pyramid located north of Egypt the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre，son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed，but the currentarchaeologst think that it not only has been completed，but it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure，which was the sixth largest pyramids in Egypt.

Its location is adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying-which began in Roman times-has left little apart from about courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacentsatellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.

阿布拉瓦须金字塔是埃及最北的金字塔之一，是埃及法老胡夫的儿子及其继承者的陵墓。人们最初认为这座金字塔从来没有完成过，但现今考古学认为它不只已完工，而且原来的大小约与孟卡拉金字塔相似，是埃及第六大金字塔。

不幸的是，它的位置接近主要的交通要道处，使得它被当成其他建筑的石材来源。被露天开采及毁坏时间约为欧洲古罗马时代时，分散的残骸仅剩下内部堆叠的石路和石堆构成金字塔的核心，不过邻近还有一个保存较好的卫星金字塔。Giza Pyramid 吉萨金字塔

Giza is the location of the biggest Pyramid of Khufu（also known as the“Great Pyramid”and the“Pyramid of Cheops”），and the smaller Pyramid of Khafre，Pyramid of Menkaure，along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as“Queen's pyramids”and the Great Sphinx.

Great Pyramid was built in the fourth dynasty Egyptian King Khufu second reign（about 2670 BC），the original height is 146.5 meters，because the top off，it becomes 136.5 meters high，square at the end surface and each side is about more than two hundred and thirty meters，covers an area of about 80 acres. Tower body is a 2,300,000 boulder composition，their sizes different from each other，respectively，weighing from 1.5 to 160 tons. According to research，It is spent a total of 100,000 people 20 years to build the Great Pyramids.塞加拉金字塔代赫舒尔金字塔

In the three major pyramids，only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing which covers its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location and the steeper angleof inclinationof its construction–it is，in fact，smaller in both height and volume. The Giza Necropolis has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity.

在吉萨，有最大的胡夫金字塔（又称“大金字塔”、“奇欧普斯金字塔”），其次是卡夫拉金字塔及孟卡拉金字塔，附近还分布着许多较小的附属金字塔及狮身人面像。

胡夫金字塔建于埃及第四王朝第二个国王胡夫统治时期（约公元前2670年），原高146.5米，因顶端剥落，现高136.5米，底面呈正方形，每边长约230多米，占地面积约80亩。塔身由230万块巨石组成，它们大小不一，分别重达1.5吨至160吨。据考证，为建成这些金字塔，一共动用了10万人，花了20年时间。

在这三座主要的金字塔中，只有卡夫拉金字塔还保留部分原始磨光的石灰岩外壳，覆盖于它的顶端附近。凭借着较高的地基位置和较斜的金字塔角度，这座金字塔看上去似乎比临近的胡夫金字塔还大，但实际上，无论是高度还是体积，卡夫拉金字塔皆比胡夫金字塔都要小一些。吉萨金字塔群是自古以来全球观光客最常去的景点之一。Abusir Pyramid 阿布西尔金字塔

There are a total of fifty-seven pyramids at this site，which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality and technology of the Abu Sir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty–perhaps signaling a recession of royal power and economy.

The three major pyramids are Niuserre-Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. All of the major pyramids at AbuSir were built as step pyramids，although the largest of them–the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai–is believed to have originally been built as a step pyramid some 70 metres high and then later transformed into a“true”pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.

阿布西尔共有57座金字塔，在第五王朝期间曾被用作王室墓地。它的建筑品质、技术明显不及第四王朝，普遍认为其代表着当时王室权力与经济的衰退。

这里主要的金字塔是纽塞拉、内弗尔卡拉及萨胡拉三座金字塔，而所有在阿布西尔的金字塔皆建造为阶梯金字塔。内弗尔卡拉金字塔是此阶段最大的金字塔，据估算，它原先建成时为高约70米，而后将阶梯缺角处填充松散的石材而成为“真金字塔”。Saqqara Pyramid 塞加拉金字塔

Saqqara pyramid includes the famous Step Pyramid of Djoser，the Pyramid of Userkaf and the Pyramid of unas. The Step Pyramid of Djoser is Egypt's most ancient stone pyramid. Also，Saqqara has the Pyramid of Unas，which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Pyramid of unas was also one of the earliest restoration. Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet，known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that this pyramid been completed andeven larger than Djoser's.

塞加拉金字塔包含著名的左塞尔阶梯金字塔、乌纳斯金字塔及马塞尔卡夫金字塔。其中左塞尔阶梯金字塔是埃及最古老的石造金字塔。而乌纳斯金字塔甚至还保留着埃及保存最完好的建筑堤道，也是在古埃及最早被尝试修复的金字塔之一。塞加拉还是左塞尔继承者塞肯凯特被毁坏的阶梯金字塔所在地，考古学家认为这座毁坏的金字塔已被完工，甚至还比左塞尔著名的阶梯金字塔更大。利斯特金字塔美杜姆金字塔Lisht Pyramid 利斯特金字塔

Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht are those of Amenemhat I and his son，Senusret I. There are ten ruined smaller subsidiary Pyramids which had been built latter. The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of Fayyum，located between Dahshur and Meidum，and about 100 kilometres away from south of Cairo，it is believed that the ancient city of Itjtawy（the precise location of which remains unknown），which served as the capital of Egypt during the 12th Dynasty.

利斯特的两座主要金字塔是阿蒙涅姆赫特一世和其子辛努塞尔特一世的金字塔。旁边围绕着十个较晚建造的已毁附属金字塔。利斯特附近还有一个著名的法尤姆绿洲，位于代赫舒尔与美杜姆之间，距离开罗约100公里，邻近古城伊塔威（实际的古城残骸位置是未确定的），在第十二王朝时曾为古埃及首都。Meidum Pyramid 美杜姆金字塔

The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu，it is believed the pyramid is built by that pharaoh's father and his predecessor，Huni. However，that kind of saying is uncertain，as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site. In addition，Meidum Pyramid may be the earliest Egyptian attempt to build the real Pyramid，but later the project was not successful. The pyramid at Meidum suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times. Today，only the inner core part is still standing，giving the structure its odd，tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated，but a natural landscape feature. In fact，it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.

美杜姆金字塔是是斯尼夫鲁统治期间所建造的三个金字塔中的一个，一般认为这座金字塔已经由斯尼夫鲁的父亲胡尼及其前代着手兴建，然而这个学说也可能是不确定的，因为斯尼夫鲁的名字并没有出现在这个地点，另外美杜姆金字塔可能是埃及最早尝试建造的真金字塔，但后来工程并不成功。美杜姆金字塔在古代遭受了严重的崩塌，而现今只剩下内部核心的部分仍屹立着，这使它成为一座外表奇特的金字塔，其底下坐落的山丘并不是自然形成的，事实上，这座碎石山就是当时外壳崩塌时形成的。● Mystery of the Construction Pyramid 金字塔修建之谜

According to legend，in ancient Egypt，before the Third Dynasty，both kings and ministers or even the common people died，were buried into a rectangular tomb built by mudbrick，the ancient Egyptians called“mastaba.”Subsequently，there was an intelligent young man named Too Pu invented a new method of construction when he desingned the graves for Egyptian pharaoh king. He used the mountains of mining stones which were square instead of mud-brick，and have been revising the construction of the mausoleum of the design，eventually built a six trapezoidal pyramid-this is what we now see the embryonic form of the pyramid.

In ancient Egypt，the pyramid was the hierarchical ladder，it also was called the level of the pyramid. This is a tall，angular pyramidal building with four square bases，each side is a triangle. It looks like the Chinese characters“gold”so we call it“pyramid.”The tower tomb designed by Too Pu was the first stonetomb in the history of Egypt.

After Djoser，the Egyptian pharaohs followed him to build their own tombs in their lifetime. so，it set off a wave of building the pyramids at the ancient Egypt.

There was a question why the ancient Egyptian pharaohs want to 乌丹利用三维技术制作的解释其building their tombs as the forms of 胡夫金字塔建造新理论的计算机模拟图Pyramid which looks like the Chinese characters of“gold”.

In fact，at the earliest time，Egypt's pharaohs were ready to take mastaba death as a permanent residence after death. Later，at around the second to the third dynasty，the Egyptians thought that the king would be god after death，his soul would ascend to heaven. The theory was proved by“pyramid inscription，”which was found later，It is said that there are like this：

To build a ladder to heaven for him（pharaoh），so that he could be up to the sky.”

Pyramid is such a kind of ladder.

At the same time，the pyramid form of cone angle also expresses the worship of the sign sun god，because the sigh ancient Egyptian sun god is the sun-shine. Pyramid is a symbol of the sun rays pierce the sky. Because，when you stand on the road leading to the kezar，pyramid ridge at the point of view looking up to the West，it can be seen the sun shines scattered by land of the pyramids.

As it was said in“The Pyramid inscriptions”“Sky put their own light into you，so you can go to heaven，as if it is the eyes of him.”Later，the worship ancient Egyptians to the obelisk also have such significance，because the obelisk also represemts light.

相传，古埃及第三王朝之前，无论王公大臣还是老百姓死后，都被葬入一种用泥砖建成的长方形的坟墓，古代埃及人叫它“马斯塔巴”。后来，有个聪明的年轻人太普，在给埃及法老左塞王设计坟墓时，发明了一种新的建筑方法。他用山上采下的呈方形的石块来代替泥砖，并不断修改陵墓的设计方案，最终建成一个六级的梯形金字塔——这就是我们现在所看到的金字塔的雏形。

在古埃及文中，金字塔是梯形分层的，因此又称作层级金字塔。这是一种高大的角锥体建筑物，底座四方形，每个侧面是三角形，样子就像汉字的“金”字，所以我们叫它“金字塔”。而太普设计的塔式陵墓是埃及历史上的第一座石质陵墓。

左塞王之后的埃及法老纷纷效仿他，在生前就大肆为自己修建坟墓，从此在古埃及掀起一股营造金字塔之风。

古代埃及的法老们为什么要将坟墓修成角锥体的形式，即修成汉字中的金字形呢？

原来，早些时候，埃及的法老是准备将马斯塔巴认为作为死后的永久性住所。到第二至第三王朝的时候，埃及人认为国王死后要成为神，他的灵魂要升天。这一理论在后来发现的《金字塔铭文》中有所证明：“为他（法老）建造起上天的天梯，以便他可由此上到天上”。

而金字塔就是这样的天梯。

角锥体金字塔形式又表示对太阳神的崇拜，因为古代埃及太阳神的标志是太阳光芒。金字塔象征的就是刺破青天的太阳光芒。因为，当你站在通往基泽的路上，在金字塔棱线的角度上向西方看去，可以看到金字塔撒向大地的太阳光芒。《金字塔铭文》中有这样的话：“天空把自己的光芒伸向你，以便你可以去到天上，犹如它的眼睛一样”。后来古代埃及人对方尖碑的崇拜也有这样的意义，因为方尖碑也表示太阳的光芒。

3. The Riddle of‘Sphinx’ “斯芬克斯”的谜语

The sphinx，in Greek tradition，has the haunches of a lion，the wings of a great bird，and the face and breast of a woman. She is methodized as treacherous and merciless. Those who cannot answer her riddle suffer a fate typical by in such mythological stories，as they are killed and eaten by this ravenous monster. The Greek sphinx which was a woman，the Egyptian sphinx is typically shown as a man（an androsphinx）. In addition，the Egyptian sphinx was viewed as benevolence in contrast to the malevolent Greek version and was thought of as a guardian often flanking the entrances to temples.

In European decorative art，the sphinx was focused more during the Renaissance. Later，the sphinx image，something very similar to the original Ancient Egyptian concept，was exported into many other cultures，albeit often interpretedquite differently due to translations of descriptions of the originals and the evolution of the concept in relation to other cultural traditions.

Generally the role of sphinxes is associated with architectural structures such as royal tombs or religious temples. The oldest known sphinx was found in Gobekli Tepe，Turkey and was dated to 9,500 BC.

在希腊神话中，斯芬克斯是有着狮子的臀部、鸟的翅膀和女人面部与胸部的怪物，它被描绘为一个奸诈和残忍的邪恶之物。据说，他总是拦住过往的路人，让他们猜谜语，猜不中的人就会被它杀死并吃掉。而古希腊传说中，斯芬克斯是以一个女人的形象出现的，在古埃及中则是以一个男人的形象出现。此外，古埃及的斯芬克斯被视为善的象征，而古希腊的斯芬克斯被视为恶的象征，是守卫神庙入口的护卫。

在欧洲的装饰艺术里，斯芬克斯随着文艺复兴而得到了很大的重视。随后，尽管与古埃及相近的斯芬克斯形象传进其他文化中，但却因为不同的描述而形象各异并在不同文化传统里得到不同的发展。

一般来说，斯芬克斯常常与皇家的墓葬和宗教庙宇等建筑形式联系在一起。最早的已知斯芬克斯形象发现于公元前9500年土耳其的哥贝克力石阵。

4. Return to Be King—Mummy 待君归来——木乃伊

Mummification in ancient Egypt was a very long and expensive process. It took about seventy days to embalm a body from beginning to end.

Since the Egyptians believed that mummification was essential for passage to the afterlife，people were mummified and buried as well as they could possibly afford. High-ranking officials，priests and other nobles who had served the pharaoh and his queen had fairly elaborate burials.

The pharaohs，who were believed to become gods when they died，had the most magnificent burials of all. In the case of a royal or noble burial，the embalmers set up workshops near the tomb of the mummy. The art of Egyptian mummification consisted of many steps. First，the body was washed and ritually purified. The next step was to remove the deceased person's inner organs. A slit was cut into the left side of the body so that the embalmers could remove the intestines，the liver，the stomach and the lungs. Each of these organs was embalmed using natron，which served to dry out the organs and discourage bacteria from decaying the tissues. The organs were then individually wrapped using long strips of linen and placed in canopic jars. The lids of these jars were fashioned after the four sons of Horus，who were each entrusted with protecting a particular organ. After the removal of the inner organs，the brain was then removed through the nose using long hooks. Since the ancient Egyptians considered the brain unimportant，it was probably thrown away.

The body was then placed on a slanted embalming table and completely covered with natron. This allowed fluids to drip away as the body slowly dried out. This part of the process took about forty days，after which the natron was removed，inside and out，to reveal a dried and shrunken body. After another cleaning，the body was rubbed with unguents to aid in preserving the mummy's skin. The head and body cavity were stuffed with packing.已干缩的木乃伊身体

The mummy was then prepared for bandaging. First，the embalming cut in the side of the body was sewn up and covered with a patching depicting the protectiveeye of Horus. The body was adorned with gold，jewels and protective amulets. Fingers and toes were covered with protective gold caps and individually wrapped with long，narrow strips of linen. Arms and legs were also wrapped，and then the entire body was wrapped to a depth of about twenty layers. The embalmers used resin to glue the layers of wrappings together. The wrapped head was covered with a mummy mask. Finally，the last layer of bandages went on and was given one last coating of resin. The mummy was the ready for burial.

Once the mummy was finally prepared，it was time for the funeral. The mummy and its canopic jars were transported by sled from the embalming tent to the tomb. People were hired to demonstrate their grief by crying and throwing dust on their hair. At the site of the tomb，religious ceremonies were held to prepare the dead for the afterlife.

在古埃及，木乃伊的制作是一个非常漫长和昂贵的过程。从开始制作木乃伊到完成需要耗费70天。

由于埃及人认为只有成为木乃伊以后才可以通往来世，所以人们尽他们最大的能力来使尸体在木乃伊化的情况下埋葬。所以侍奉法老和皇后的高级官员、牧师和其他贵族自然可以享受隆重的葬礼，也就是可以被精心制成木乃伊。

埃及人相信法老死后会变成神，因此法老的木乃伊制作也是最精细的。如果皇族或贵族要举行葬礼，制作木乃伊的工匠就会在墓穴附近搭建作坊。制作木乃伊的手艺主要分成几个步骤。首先要清洗尸体，并且仪式性的净化尸体。然后要把身体里的脏器取出，在身体的左侧划开一刀，从这个缝隙中将人的肠、肝、胃和肺部取出，用泡碱使这些器官脱水变干，以阻止细菌的生存从而不会腐蚀以后要包裹的纺织品。这些器官将分别用长条的亚麻包裹起来，放在罐子里，罐子的盖子上会有荷鲁斯四个儿子的图案，每一个都负责保护一种脏器。把脏器移出之后，人脑也要被掏出，方法是用一个长长的钩子从鼻孔进入，将脑子全部掏出来。由于古埃及人认为脑不重要，所以取出以后就直接扔掉了。

接下来把尸体放在一个倾斜的台子上，用泡碱完全覆盖，使其慢慢脱水变干，这个过程可能要40天的时间。之后将泡碱除掉，这时候尸体的里面和外面都已经干燥，呈现干枯萎缩的状态，再次清洁以后，在尸体表面抹上厚厚的药膏，以保护皮肤，然后把空的体腔和头腔都用东西填满，这样就可以准备用绷带包扎了。

首先，要把身体左侧刀口缝合，用绘有荷鲁斯之眼的补丁来覆盖，然后把尸体用金银珠宝和护身符装饰起来。每一个手指和脚趾都分别用金子包裹，并且用长条的亚麻包扎好。胳膊和腿也包扎好以后，再把整个身体层层包扎，大概要缠二十层，最后用松香把它们粘合。缠好的头部要用一个木乃伊面具覆盖。最后一层的绷带用松香粘好，这样木乃伊就制作完毕了。

木乃伊制作完毕后，就可以举行葬礼了。木乃伊和装有脏器的罐子会用类似雪橇的工具从制作间运送到墓穴中。这个时候，会有很多人，用哭泣和往头发上扬灰的方式来表达悲痛。之后要在墓穴中举行宗教仪式，让死者为来世做好准备。

5. The Curse of Tutankhamen 图坦卡门的诅咒

Tutankhamen was the 12th pharaoh of ancient Egypt's 18th dynasty，and he took over the wand of baton sun god Amun in 1361 BC and was entitled the pharaoh's throne only at his nine-year-old.

Tutankhamen was well known for the rich and fine funerary goods when excavating and the consequent mysterious story-Pharaoh's curse.大英博物馆中的木乃伊

On November 26，1923，the British archaeologist Carter，Mr.Von and his excavation team found the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamen. There was plenty of treasure，and two tall statues guarded this hall，on their back，there was warning words said：I am a guardian of the King Tutankhamen，and I use the desert fire to expel the ghoul.

Carter did not care this words and kept on diging.

On morning of February 27，1923，a cobra went into Carter's house and took his lucky bird-the Canary hanged. It was said that cobra is the guardian of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh and it is not a good sign.

The jubilant Carter was not deterred by this snake，his did not stop. A few days later，the chamber of Pharaoh's tombs was opened，but no one concerned about a small inscription on a tablet in front of the room. It was the second fearing curse：“who disturbed the pharaoh's sleep，death will open their wings and fell on his head.”

In this clean-up after the excavation，Carter found two more curses warning people to give up the grave，but Carter and Carnarvon did not care.

At this time，a mosquito bitted the face of Lord Carnarvon. The small wound almost made Carnarvon extremely frightened and he were sick with a high fever，teeth also started to fall one by one. In Early March，Carnarvon's neck swelled and got pneumonia.

In late March，Carnarvon had the high fever of 40 degrees which lasted for 12 days. The doctor said that Earl was infected by a wound which was cut when shaving. But he could not explain why Earl got such a high fever and kept on murmuring：“I heard his voice，I want to go with him.”

Then，at 2:00 am of April 5，the whole Cairo suddenly powered off，the city sank into the dark night like 3000 years ago.

The 57-year-old Lord Carnarvon died quietly. At the same time，his dog in the UK also died.

But this did not deter Carter's curiosity，he insisted on opening sarcophagus.

There was a golden mask forgedThere was a golden mask forged in accordance with the shape of the human body at the innermost of Tutankhamen's coffin. A vivid gold mask came into sight when opened the last one luxury coffin and it covered the mummy's face

Although this pair of gold masks had existed for more than 3,000 years，they were still so brilliant that as if can see through the depths of the soul of grave robbers.

In order to get the jeweler on the body of the mummy，Grave robber Carter and his fellow Douglas who was a doctor cut the mummy into 3 pieces rudely. In the process of cutting，doctor Delhi had a startling discovery-there is a wound because of ulcer on the left cheek of the mummy which was corresponded with the location of the fatal mosquito bited on Carnarvon.

In the next few years，several ten people who had connection with Tutankhamun died suddenly one by one. There were diggers，visitors and also researchers among of them.

For a time，the statement about the“Curse of the Pharaoh”caused a sensation in the world.

However，what is the truth？ The scientists and amateurs have been pursuing all the time.

There are several explanations，the first explanation is viruses and fungi，the second explanation is poison，and the third explanation is that the radiation，the fourth possible explanation is psychological pressure.图坦卡门墓中的黄金面具

图坦卡门是古埃及十八王朝的第十二位法老，他于公元前1361年接过太阳神阿波罗的权杖，年仅九岁就登上了法老的宝座。

图坦卡门广为人知，其原因是他被发掘时保存有丰富、完好的陪葬品和随之而来的神秘的故事——法老的诅咒。

1923年11月26日，英国考古学家卡特、卡那冯伯爵与他们的发掘队发现了图坦卡门法老的陵墓。里面堆放着大量的财宝，并且有两座高大的雕像把守着这座大厅，他们的背后，写着第一个警告：我是图坦卡门国王的守卫者，我用沙漠之火驱逐盗墓贼。

卡特没有把这句话放在眼里，他继续挖掘。

1923年2月27日凌晨，一条眼镜蛇游进了卡特的住宅，将它的幸运鸟金丝雀绞死了。传说眼镜蛇是古埃及法老的守护者，这可不是个好兆头。

但兴高采烈的卡特并没有被这条蛇给吓住，他没有停手。几天后， 法老陵墓的内室被打开，但谁也没有在意内室前方一块小小的碑记。那是第二条令人恐惧的诅咒：“谁扰乱了法老的安眠，死神将张开翅膀降临在他的头上。”

在此之后的清理发掘中，卡特又发现两条诅咒，警告不敬的人放弃这座陵墓，然而卡特和卡那冯都毫不在意。

就在这时，一只蚊子在卡那冯伯爵的脸上叮了一口。这一小口似乎使得卡那冯受到了极度的惊吓，他病倒了，发起了高烧，牙齿也陆续脱落。三月初，卡那冯脖子肿胀，得了肺炎。

三月下旬，卡那冯的高烧直升到40度，而且持续了十二天。据医生说，是伯爵在刮胡子的时候割破了一个伤口造成了感染。但是他解释不了，为什么发着高烧的伯爵一直不停的呼叫：“我听见他的声音，我要随他去了。”

然后，就是4月5日的凌晨2点，突然整个开罗都停了电，这座城市陷入了如同3千年前一样的黑暗夜晚。

一片静寂中，57岁的卡那冯伯爵去世了。与此同时，他远在英国的爱犬也猝死。

但是这并没有阻吓卡特的好奇心，他坚持开启石棺。

图坦卡门棺材最里面的一具居然是按照人体的形状用纯金打造成的。打开这最后的豪华棺，映入眼帘的是一幅栩栩如生的黄金面具，它覆盖在木乃伊的面部。

这副金面具，经历3千余年，仍然灼灼逼人的黑色眼睛，仿佛要一直看进盗墓者的灵魂深处。

盗墓者卡特为了要得到紧贴在木乃伊身上的珠宝，和一位名叫道格拉斯·德里的医生居然将保存得那么完好的法老木乃伊切割成3块，而且手法粗糙。就在切割的过程中，德里医生也同时有了个惊人的发现：木乃伊的左边脸颊上，有一个生前溃疡形成的伤口——与卡那冯伯爵受蚊子叮咬的伤口在同一位置。

在往后的几年间，有数十位跟图坦卡蒙扯上关系的人，先后猝然死去。其中有发掘者，还有参观者以及研究人员。

一时间，关于“法老的诅咒”之说，轰动了世界。

然而，真相到底是什么，科学家和爱好者却一直在不断的追寻。

现在有好几种解释，第一种是病毒和真菌，第二种是毒药，第三种是放射线的辐射，第四种可能是心理压力。● What Is the Truth Behind the Mummy's Curse？ 都是法老王诅咒搞的鬼？

For over a century，tales of Egyptian mummies seeking revenge over them who disturbed tombs have excited the curiosity of people around the world. However，according to British archaeologist Dominic Montserrat，curses that protect the remains of ancient Egyptians are simply an invention of storywriters.

Montserrat has found that the idea of a curse was created 180 years ago by novelist Jane Loudon. In 1821，Loudon got the idea for a horror novel while watching an exhibition of mummies being unwrapped in London. Her novel featured in a mummy coming back to life and seeking revenge against an archaeologist.守卫图坦卡门陵墓的阿努比斯

During the late 1860s，the vengeful mummy idea evolved into the concept of the mummy's curse，which was made popular by several American and British novelists. Another author，Marie Corelli，issued a warning after the discovery of King Tutankhamen's（King Tut）tomb that anyone who dared enter would be severely punished.

Stories of mummy curses were widespread in the early 20th century. Some journalists even said that the Titanic sank in 1912 because an ancient Egyptian coffin was on board. Later，in 1923，the discovery of King Tut's tomb added new life to the legend. The unexpected death of Lord Carnarvon，who led the exploration of the tomb，propelled the curse story onto the front pages of newspapers around the world.

According to Dominic Montserrat，however，there was nothing unusual about Carnarvon's death，since he was in poor health anyway. Moreover，almost all the 26 members of the exploration team were still alive ten years later. So what the curse is！

100多年来，埃及木乃伊向盗墓者报复的传说激起了全世界人的好奇心。然而根据英国考古学家多米尼克·蒙瑟雷特的说法，保护古埃及人遗骸的诅咒只是小说家的一个构想。

蒙瑟雷特发现这种诅咒的构想是小说家简·劳敦在180年前创作的。1821年当劳敦在伦敦观看一个解开木乃伊裹布的展示时，便想到用这个构思来写恐怖小说。她的小说表现了一个木乃伊复活并向考古学家复仇的故事。

19世纪60年代末，木乃伊复仇的构想演变成为木乃伊诅咒的观念，并在被许多英美小说家采用后，已蔚然成风。在埃及图坦卡门王（塔特王）的陵墓被发现后，另一位作家玛丽·柯瑞里发出警告：擅闯者将严惩不怠。

20世纪初木乃伊诅咒的故事广为流传。一些新闻记者甚至说，1912年泰坦尼克号的沉没是因为船上放置了一副古埃及棺木。之后1923年塔特王陵墓的出土也为此传说注入了新生命。接踵而来的挖掘陵墓的卡尔那冯伯爵的猝死，更将此诅咒传说推上全球报纸的头版。

然而根据多米尼克·蒙瑟雷特的说法，卡尔那冯的死并无异常之处，因为他的健康状况一直欠佳。而且10年后勘探队的26名成员几乎都还健在。这算什么诅咒！

Chapter 3 The Two Rivers' Civilization—The Beautiful“Garden of Eden” 第三章 两河文明——美丽的“伊甸园”

1. Babylon Empire—The“Hanging Gardens” 巴比伦王国——“空中花园”

The ancient Babylon kingdom is located in the Mesopotamia plain，about 5000 years ago，where people established the state，until 18 Century BC，Amorites exterminate Sumerian third dynasty of Ur，established in Babylon city as the capital of the kingdom of Babylon.

The kingdom of Babylon is divided into ancient Babylon and the new kingdom of Babylon two historical periods. In 1792 BC，the sixth generation of King Hammurabi conquered the Sumerians and Akkadians，unified Mesopotamia plain，to build a strong and centralized state，known as the ancient kingdom of Babylon（about 1894 BC to 1595 BC）. The“code of Hammurabi”is the first relatively complete code at the ancient west Asia. The kingdom of Babylon economic and culture are very developed，especially in mathematics and astronomy，After Hammurabi's death，the Empire collapsed. The Kingdom suffered invades from the Hittites and the Kassites，was finally annexed by the Assyrian empire until 729 BC.

The new kingdom of Babylon established by the Chaldeans，who settled in southern Mesopotamia Assyrian Empire，1000 BC，and conquered the ancient kingdom of Babylon and ruled over southern Mesopotamia，the Chaldeans had repeatedly rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 626 BC，the Assyrians and Chaldeans leader of faction，the PopA LaSalle army stationed in Babylon，he went to Babylon，but launched a revolt against Assyrian rule，to establish the new kingdom of Babylon，and together with the Medes（also known as the Metia）kingdom of Iran plateau against Assyria. In 612 BC，the Assyrian Empire was extinct，the kingdom of Babylon heritage was divided by new the new kingdom of Babylon and Medes，the new kingdom of Babylon took the western half of the country of the Assyrian Empire，named southern Mesopotamia，Syria，Palestine and Phoenicia，then reconstructed the new kingdom of Babylon.

古巴比伦王国位于美索不达米亚平原。早在距今约5000年前左右，这里的人们就建立了国家。到公元前18世纪，阿摩利人灭掉苏美尔人的乌尔第三王朝，建立了以巴比伦城为首都的巴比伦王国。

巴比伦王国分为古巴比伦和新巴比伦王国两个历史时期。公元前1792，第六代国王汉穆拉比，征服了苏美尔人和阿卡德人，统一了美索不达米亚平原，建立了一个强大的中央集权制国家，史称古巴比伦王国（约公元前1894～前1595年）。其间所颁《汉穆拉比法典》是古代西亚第一部较为完备的法典。古巴比伦王国经济文化高度发展，尤其是数学和天文学的成就最为显著。汉穆拉比死后，帝国就瓦解了。王国先后受到赫梯人、加喜特人的入侵，直到公元前729年终于被亚述帝国吞并。

新巴比伦王国由迦勒底人建立，他们于公元前1000年初来到两河流域南部定居，亚述帝国征服古巴比伦王国并统治了两河流域南部，迦勒底人曾多次起义反抗亚述的统治。公元前626年，亚述人派迦勒底人领袖那波帕拉沙尔率军驻守巴比伦，他到巴比伦后，发动了反对亚述统治的起义，并与伊朗高原的米底（也称米堤亚）王国联合，共同对抗亚述。公元前612年，亚述帝国灭亡，遗产被新巴比伦王国及米底王国瓜分，其中新巴比伦王国分取了亚述帝国的西半壁河山，即两河流域南部、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦及腓尼基，建立新巴比伦王国。● The Love Story Behind the Hanging Gardens 空中花园背后的爱情故事

There has been a beautiful love story behind the building of the Hanging Gardens.

The Hanging Gardens were built by Nebuchadnezzar II，King of Babylon around 600 BC. He married Amytis，the 空中花园princess of Media. The beautiful princess was so adorable that the king loved her very much. Not long after their marriage，the princess became very frustrated and looked very sad. The king cared for his wife but didn’t know why she was unhappy.

The princess told him that she was homesick. She said that there were plenty of trees and flowers in her homeland，surrounded by mountains. While here in Babylon，only endless plains were in view and even a small hill can not be found. How I wish to see the winding trails and mountains in my homeland！

Then，the king ordered to build gardens to imitate the scenery in Media，the homeland of Amitys. Gardens with the appearance of a theatre，waterfalls，animals，fruits and plants were built. These were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

在空中花园的建造背后有一个美丽的爱情故事。

空中花园是由巴比伦国王尼布甲尼撒二世约于公元前600年主持建造的。他娶了米底的公主米梯斯为王后，美丽的王后非常惹人疼爱，国王对她宠爱有加。但婚后不久，公主变得非常失落，看起来很伤心。国王关心她的爱妻但不明白其中缘由。

公主告诉国王，她非常想家。她说，家乡米底山峦叠翠，花草丛生，而在这里只能看见一望无际的平原，连个小山丘都看不到。我多么希望能看到家乡的盘山小道和山峦呀！

于是，国王下令模仿米梯斯家乡——米底的景色，在他的宫殿里，建造花园。花园建造成露天剧场的形状，里面有瀑布、动物、水果和花草。这就是古巴比伦的空中花园。● Description of the Hanging Gardens 空中花园的描述

The path to the Garden sloped like a hillside and several parts of the structure rose from tier upon tie. On all this，the earth had been piled，and was thickly planted with all kinds of trees. Their great size and other charms gave pleasure to the viewers. The water machines raised the water from the river，although no one outside could see it.

Fruits and flowers，waterfalls，gardens hanging from the palace terraces. Exotic animals……This is the picture of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon in most people's mind. It may be surprising to know that they might have never existed except in the mind of the Greek poets and historians！

通往花园的道路像山坡一样倾斜着，建筑物的几个部分一层一层地向上交错排列着，泥土在这些上面堆积着，并且浓密地种植着各种各样的花草树木，它们以其巨大的身躯和其他一些魅力，令观赏者赏心悦目；抽水的机器把大量的水从河中提升到花园中，尽管没有人能从外面看到它。

水果、鲜花、瀑布、花园高悬在宫殿的阳台上，奇异的动物……这是大多数人想象中的巴比伦空中花园。让人吃惊的是，空中花园除了在希腊诗人和历史学家的头脑中出现过外，可能从来就没有存在过。The Water Supply System of the Hanging Gardens 空中花园的供水系统

The most amazing part of the Hanging Gardens is their water supply system. As rainfall was quite rare in Babylon and the relics of the Hanging Gardens were far from the Euphrates River，it is believed that there must have been plenty of water supply devices in the gardens. Slaves pushed the handles of the gear wheel on and on to lift the water to the highest tank. Then，the water form the highest tank would flow into the gardens through the artificial waterways.

巴比伦空中花园最令人称奇的地方是供水系统，因为巴比伦雨水不多，而空中花园的遗址亦远离幼发拉底河，所以人们认为空中花园应该有不少的供水设备。奴隶不停地推动着齿轮的把手，空中花园想象图把地下水运到最高一层的储水池。然后，储水池中的水再经人工河道流入花园之中。The Maintenance of the Hanging Gardens 空中花园的保养

Another challenge of the Hanging Gardens is the maintenance of the gardens. It is impossible for ordinary buildings to maintain for a long time with the flush of the water. Blocks were rare on Mesopotamia plain，so it was believed that the blocks used for building the Hanging Gardens，which contained reeds，pitch，and tiles，were different from the ordinary blocks. Some documents even figured out that layers of lead were added to the blocks to prevent the water from penetrating into the foundation.

It was not until the twentieth century that some mysteries about the Hanging Gardens were revealed. Archaeologists are still struggling to gather enough evidences before reaching the final conclusions about the location，the irrigation system，and their true appearance of the Gardens.

另一个难题是空中花园的保养。对于一般建筑物来说，要长年经受河水的侵蚀而维持保养下来是不可能的。由于美索不达米亚平原没有太多石块，因此人们相信空中花园所用的砖块与一般石块不同，它们中掺入了芦苇、沥青及瓦。还有文献指出石块中被加入了一层铅，以防止河水渗入地基。

直到20世纪，围绕着空中花园的一些不解之迷才被揭示出来。在得出关于花园的地理位置、灌溉系统和真正面目的最终结论之前，考古学家们仍在努力地收集足够的证据。

2. The Son of the Sea—The Phoenician Civilization 海之骄子——腓尼基文明

The Phoenicians，who were the neighbours of the Jews，were a Semitictribe which at a very early age had settled along the shores of the Mediterranean. They had built themselves two well-fortified towns，Tyre and Sidon，and within a short time they had gained a monopoly of the trade of the western seas. Their ships went regularly to Greece and Italy and Spain and they even ventured beyond the straits of Gibraltar to visit the Stilly islands where they could buy tin. Wherever they went，they built themselves small trading stations，which they called colonies. Many of these were the origin of modern cities，such as Cadiz and Marseilles.

They traded everything which could bring them a good profit. They were not troubled by a conscience. If their neighbours weren't pompous，they did not know what was the means of honesty and integrity. They regarded a well-filled treasure chest as the highest ideal of all good citizens. Indeed they were very unpleasant people and did not have a single friend. Nevertheless they were rendered all coming generations' one service of the greatest possible value. They gave us alphabet.

腓尼基人是犹太人的邻居，同属闪米特部族。在很早的时候，他们沿地中海海岸定居下来，并修筑了两座防备坚固的城市——提尔和西顿。没过多长时间，他们便垄断了西方海域的贸易。他们的船只定期开往希腊、意大利和西班腓尼基的染料贸易牙，甚至还冒险驶过直布罗陀海峡，到锡利群岛采购锡。他们所到之处建立起一些小型的贸易据点，称为“殖民地”。许多现代城市都起源于腓尼基人建立的小贸易站，比如卡迪斯和马赛。腓尼基字母

腓尼基人买卖有利可图的一切东西，却从未觉得良心不安。如果他们的邻居没有夸大其辞，那么腓尼基人就是既不诚实，也不正直的人。他们把装得满满的钱箱当成是所有正派公民的最高理想。事实上，他们极不招人喜欢，也从未交到过朋友。不过，他们给后人留下了一笔极有价值的遗产——字母。● The Origin of Modern Alphabet—Phoenician Alphabet 现代字母的起源——腓尼基字母

The Phoenicians had been familiar with the art of writing，invented by the Sumerians. But they regarded these pothooks as a clumsy waste of time. They were practical business men and could not spend hours engraving two or three letters. They set to work and invented a new system of writing which was greatly superior to the old one. They borrowed a few pictures from the Egyptians and simplified a number of the wedge-shaped figures of the Sumerians. They sacrificed the pretty looks of the older system for the advantage of speed and they reduced the thousands of different images to a short and handy alphabet of twenty-two letters. Later on，this alphabets traveled across the Aegean Sea and entered Greece. The Greeks added a few letters of their own and carried the improved system to Italy. The Romans modified the figures and taught them to the wild barbarians of Western Europe.

腓尼基人熟悉苏美尔人发明的楔形文字，不过他们觉得这些歪斜的笔划既笨拙又浪费时间。他们是凡事讲求实际的商人，不肯把大量的时间花在雕刻这些繁琐的字母上。于是他们投入工作，发明了一种大大优于楔形文字的新文字体系。他们从埃及的象形文字中借来几个图案，并简化了数个苏美尔人的楔形文字。以牺牲旧有文字的优美外形为代价，追求书写的速度和效率，终于，他们将数千个不同的文字图案简化成短小而方便的22个字母。后来，这些字母越过爱琴海传入希腊。希腊人为其增添了几个自己创造的字母，并将改进的字母系统带到意大利。罗马人对字母的外形稍加修改，又将它们教给西欧的野蛮部落。

3. Solomon's Treasure—Ancient Israel 所罗门的宝藏——古代以色列

Kingdom of Judah is considered to be in the south of the eastern Mediterranean countries in the Iron Age. But，there isn't definite answer to Jewish problems. It is generally believed that Jewish history began in 2000 BC，there are ancestor Abraham，his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. A country-wide famine forced Jacob and his sons，the 公元前9世纪的以色列ancestors of Israel，twelve tribes moved to Egypt，where their descendants become slaves. Several centuries later，Moses rate people out of Egypt，from slavery to freedom，and ultimately returns to the Land of Israel. They wander on the Sinai desert for 40 years，where they form a nation，and received the Ten Commandments，including the Law of Moses，their ancestor who founded monotheism begin to take shape.

In 1028 BC，Saul establishes a monarchy；his successor，Davidin unites the tribe and takes its capital in Jerusalem，in 1000 BC. David's son Solomon makes the kingdom to become a prosperitycommercial power country，and construct Israel's monotheistic religions in Jerusalem Temple.

After Solomon passed away，the country split into Northern and Southern Dynasties：one is the Kingdom of Israel，its capital is Samaria. The other is Jewish kingdom，its capital is Jerusalem. Historians usually refer to the southern Jewish kingdom as ancient Israel. Two kingdoms exist for two centuries，ruled by the Jewish kings，and prophets warned the people by social justice and compliance with the law. In 722 BC，the Assyrians invaded and occupied by the Kingdom of Israel，its people are forced to exile（called the“lost ten tribes”）. In 586 BC，the Jewish kingdom was conquered by Babylon，the invaders destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem，and most of the Jews exiled to Babylon.

In 539 BC，the Persians conquered the Babylonian empire，after many Jews returned Judah（the Land of Israel），and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem，the way of life of the Jews in the Land restored. After four centuries，Persians and Jews，who under the rule of the ancient Greeks，enjoyed a large degree of autonomy. As the Serbian dynasty of Syria imposed a series of measures to prohibit the Jewish religion，led to the uprising outbreak，which led by the Maccabees（Hasmonean people）in 168 BC，then established an independent Jewish kingdom which lasted about 80 years and reigned by Jewish kings of Hasmonean dynasty.

犹太王国被认为是于铁器时代出现在南地中海东部的几个国家之一。不过，关于犹太人出现的问题还没有确切的答案。一般认为，犹太人的历史始于公元前2000年，有始祖亚伯拉罕、其子以撒和其孙雅各。一场遍及全国的饥荒迫使雅各和他的儿子们，即以色列十二个部落的祖先移居埃及，在那里他们的后代沦为奴隶。几个世纪之后，摩西率众人离开埃及，摆脱奴役，奔向自由，最终返回以色列故土。他们在西奈沙漠上流浪了40年，在那里形成了一个民族，并接受了包括十诫在内的摩西律法，他们的始祖们所创立的一神教从此初具规模。

公元前1028年，所罗建立了君主国；他的继承者大卫于公元前1000年统一了各部落并建都于耶路撒冷。大卫的儿子所罗门把王国发展成为繁荣的商业强国并在耶路撒冷兴建了以色列一神教圣殿。

所罗门去世后，国家分裂成南北朝：一个是以色列王国，首都设在撒马利亚；一个是犹太王国，首都设在耶路撒冷。历史学家通常是以南部的犹太王国指古代以色列。两个王国并存两个世纪之久，由犹太诸王统治，并由先知告诫人们主持社会正义和遵守律法。公元前722年，以色列王国遭亚述人侵占，它的人民被迫流亡（史称“失掉的十个部落”）。公元前586年，犹太王国被巴比伦人征服，入侵者捣毁了耶路撒冷的圣殿，并将大部分犹太人放逐到巴比伦。

公元前539年，巴比伦帝国被波斯人征服，之后，许多犹太人返回犹大（以色列故土），并在耶路撒冷重建圣殿，犹太人在故土上的生活方式也得以恢复。此后四个世纪，犹太人在波斯人和古希腊人的统治下，享有很大程度的自治权。由于叙利亚塞琉孤王朝强制实行一系列措施，禁止犹太人的宗教信仰，公元前168年终于爆发了由马加比家族（哈斯蒙尼人）领导的起义，随后建立了由哈斯蒙尼王朝犹太诸王统治、历时约80年的独立犹太王国。● Solomon 所罗门王

Solomon is son and successor of David. Nearly all that is known about him comes from the Bible（1 Kings 1-11 and 2 Chronicles 1-9）. Through the efforts of his mother，Bathsheba，and the prophet Nathan，Solomon was anointed king while David was still alive. On accession to the throne，he liquidated his opponents ruthlessly and installed friends in key posts. He established Israelite 《所罗门的审判》古斯塔夫·多雷作品colonies outside his kingdom's borders，cooperating with such friendly rulers as the Queen of Sheba to increase commerce. Fortification of his far-flung empire necessitated a vast building program，the crowning achievement of which was the Temple of Jerusalem. He reorganized the nation into 12 tribes with 12 administrative districts. It is said that he had a harem of 700 wives and 300 concubines. After the ascension to the throne of his son Rehoboam，the northern tribes seceded and formed their own kingdom of Israel，bringing an end to Solomon's empire. His legendary wisdom is recorded in the Book of Proverbs，and he is traditionally named as the author of the biblical Song of Solomon. He was regarded as the greatest king of Israel.

所罗门王是大卫的儿子和继承者。几乎所有关于他的记载都来自《圣经》（《列王纪》第1～11章和《历代志》第1～9章）。通过其母亲拔示巴和先知拿单的努力，所罗门在大卫在世时被施以涂油礼。登基后，他无情的消灭敌人，将亲友安排到重要职位上。他在王国边界之外建立了以色列殖民地，和希巴女王等友好的统治者合作，以期促进商业。其庞大王国的防御工事需要大的建筑计划，其中最壮观的就是耶路撒冷圣殿。他重新划分整个国家，分成十二个部落，分别处于十二个行政区。据说他有七百个妻子和三百多个妾。其子罗霍博姆继位后，北部部落分离出去，形成以色列王国，结束了所罗门帝国的辉煌。其传奇式的智慧都被记录在《旧约》的《箴言》中，据说他是圣经所罗门之歌的作者，还被认为是以色列最伟大的国王。● King Solomon's Treasure 所罗门王的宝藏

Around 1000 BC，the Jewish leader David captured Jerusalem，put it as their capital and estalblished a unified Jewish kingdom. Jews played the Canaanite language of the city into Mingxibolai and called it“Utah Rosa Ram.”Chinese translated it as“Jerusalem.”“Jesus Road”means a“city”，“Salem”means a“peace”，combine them together，that means“city of peace.”Jerusalem Arabs are accustomed to call it as“Goodstone”，which means“holy”. It is King David's son Solomon who built Jerusalem into a capital to be worthy of its name，He started massive construction projects in Jerusalem and the construction of a series of city buildings；one of the most famous is a great Jewish temple. This temple is 200 meters in length，100 meters in wiath. It took them seven years to complete. This temple has became the eyes of the Jewish Holy Land. Since then，Jews began to regard Jerusalem as their holy city.

Solomon built the Jewish Temple on Mount Zion in Jerusalem，surrounded by a stone wall. According to legend，the most precious of sacred Jewish gold“Ark of the Covenant”and“Sinai Code”are placed in the temple of the church.

Gold“Ark of the Covenant，”filled with divine sayings from the Lord God of Israel who was worshopped mosthy. It was received by Moses on the top of the mountain in the sinai. God has also granted a set of codes and canons to Moses that Israelites must abide by an the time and for everything. Moses received the divine sayings and“Sinai Code”，then let the two craftsmen made a special money box of gold，which is gold“Ark of the Covenant.”

In addition to the highest Jewish elders（ie priests）have the right to enter the church once a year，to visit sacred objects，the other person are not allowed to enter any church.

Solomon is very rich. It is said that Solomon won the tribute from the dependent country every year，it is equal to the Gold of 666 taran（1 Taran is equal to 150 kilograms）. Solomon plundered his gold and silver and kept 名著《所罗门王的宝藏》them in the temple，which is called“treasures of Solomon”，it passed one generation to generation.

Because of Solomon's death，the Jewish Kingdom split into two countries—Jewish and Israel. Israel hasn't the center of religious，the priests are to Jerusalem，“Jewish Temple”for sacrifice，Christians are still a pilgrimage here，as the only sacred—“Ark of the Covenant”is still here.

To 590 BC，New King of Babylonian，Nebuchadnezzar II invade again the Jewish，after Jerusalem were trapped three years，and finally captured by the Babylonian army in 586 BC，the whole palace and the temple was destroyeda large number of Jews were brought to Babylon，which is the so-called“prisoners of Babylon.”Since then，the priceless treasures lost—“ark of the covenant the Lord“and”treasures of Solomon”.

For thousands of years，many people want to find the“Ark of the Covenant“and”treasures of Solomon”，until today，it still no results.

大约在公元前1000年左右，犹太人的首领大卫攻占了耶路撒冷，并把它作为自己的首都，建立了统一的犹太王国。犹太人把迦南人所起的城名希伯莱语化，叫做“犹罗萨拉姆”，汉语译为“耶路撒冷”。“耶路”是“城市”的意思，“撒冷”是“和平”的意思，合起来也就是“和平之城”。阿拉伯人则习惯把耶路撒冷叫做“古德斯”，也就是“圣城”的意思。把耶路撒冷建成一座名副其实的都城的人，是大卫王的儿子所罗门王。他在耶路撒冷大兴土木，建造了一系列的城市建筑，其中最为著名的是一座巨大的犹太教圣殿。圣殿长200多米，宽100多米，用了7年的时间才建成，是犹太人心目中的圣地。从此，犹太教徒也开始把耶路撒冷视为自己的圣城。

所罗门的犹太教圣殿建在耶路撒冷的锡安山上，周围还筑了一道石墙。相传，犹太教最为珍贵的圣物金“约柜”和“西奈法典”就放在圣殿的圣堂里。

金“约柜”里装着以色列人最崇拜的上帝耶和华的圣谕。这是当年摩西在西奈山顶上得到的。上帝还授予摩西一套法典和教规，要求以色列人时时事事都要遵守照办。摩西得到圣谕和“西奈法典”后，就让两个能工巧匠用黄金特制了一个金柜，这就是金“约柜”。

除了犹太教的最高长老（即祭司长）有权每年一次进入圣堂，探视圣物外，其他任何人不得进入圣堂。

所罗门极为富有。据说，所罗门每年在各个属国征收相当于666塔兰黄金（1塔兰相当于150公斤）的贡品。他将所搜刮的金银财宝都存放在圣殿里，这就是历代相传的“所罗门珍宝”。

所罗门死后，犹太王国分裂成犹太国和以色列。由于以色列没有宗教中心，祭司们都到耶路撒冷的“犹太圣殿”献祭，教民们也仍然到这里朝圣，因为唯一的圣物——“约柜”仍在这里。

到了公元前590年，新巴比伦王尼布甲尼撒二世第二次进兵犹太，耶路撒冷在被困3年以后，终于在公元前586年被巴比伦军队攻占，王宫和圣殿全被烧毁，大批的犹太人被押送到巴比伦，这就是前面所谓的“巴比伦之囚”。从此，无价之宝金“约柜”和“所罗门宝藏”下落不明。

几千年来，许多人都想找到金“约柜”和“所罗门宝藏”，但直到今天，仍无结果。

Chapter 4 Ancient Indian 第四章 上古印度

1. The Classics Sung—The Vedic Period 经典中传唱——吠陀时代

The Vedic period（or Vedic age）was a period in history during which the Vedas，the oldest scriptures of Hinduism were composed. The time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda，the oldest of the Vedas，was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BC，also referred as the early Vedic period. The end of the period is commonly estimated to have occurred about 500 BC and 150 BC.

Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone，and a literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times. Despite the difficulties in dating the period，the Vedas can safely be assumed to be several thousands of years old. The associated culture，sometimes referred as Vedic civilization，was probably centered early in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent，but has now spread and constitutes the basis of contemporary Indian culture.After the end of the Vedic period，the Mahajanapadas period in turn gave way to the Maurya Empire（from 320 BC），it is the golden age of classical Sanskrit literature.

吠陀时期（或吠陀时代）是一个历史时期，在此期间，吠陀是印度教最古老的经文。这一时期的时间跨度是不确定的。语言学和语言的证据表明黎俱吠陀是最古老的吠陀经文。公元前1700年至公元前1100年也被称为早期吠陀时期。大约公元前500年和公元前150年，是吠陀时期的终结。

在吠陀时期的文本传播，仅口头传诵，文学的传播，只有在后期吠陀时代。尽管很难追溯吠陀时期的历史，但可以肯定的是，吠陀历史可以追溯至数千年前。与吠陀文明紧密联系的吠陀文化，在早期很可能以印度次大陆的北部和西北部地区为中心，但现在已经广泛的传播，并构成了当代印度文化的基础。吠陀时期结束后，又经历列国时代，孔雀帝国（公元前320），它是古典梵语文学的黄金时代。

2. The Buddha's Era of Maha—Janapadas 释迦牟尼的时代——列国时代

Mahājanapadas known as“great realms”in literally，was the common name of ancient Indian kingdoms or countries. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region，which was prior to the rise of Buddhism in India. The sixth century BC is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history.

列国时代，书面称为“伟大的王国”，是古印度诸多王国或国家的总称。古代佛教的典籍《增支部》（又称《增一尼迦耶》，为《巴利文大藏经》中经藏的组成部分，南传上座部佛教典籍）经常提到16个大王国和共和国，从印度次大陆西北部的犍陀罗、东部的安加到温迪亚山区域，列国在这条带形区域内发展繁荣，这个时期早于佛教兴起的时代。公元前6世纪通常被认为是早期印度历史的转折。

3. The“Boundless Dharma”—The Creation and Spread of Buddhism 佛法无边”——佛教的创立与传播

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a varietyof traditions，beliefs and practices，largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama，commonly known as the Buddha. The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentientbeings end ignoranceof dependent origination，thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.《罗摩衍那》壁画

Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized as Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada—the oldest surviving branch—has a widespreadfollowing in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land，Zen，Nichiren Buddhism，Tibetan Buddhism，Shingon，Tiantai（Tendai）and Shinnyo-en.

佛教是一种宗教和哲学，包含了印度各种传统的信仰和习俗。它的主要教义是由乔达摩悉达多（释迦牟尼）创立，所以释迦牟尼又被尊称为“佛”。佛陀主要活动于公元前6到4世纪的印度次大陆东北。他教导信徒，传播自己的理念，以帮助众生结束无知的缘起，脱离六道轮回之苦。

主流佛教主要分为两个分支：小乘佛教与大乘佛教。小乘佛教是佛教最早的分支，主要分布于东南亚及斯里兰卡。大乘佛教则主要分布于东亚地区，分有净土宗、禅宗、日莲宗、真言宗、天台宗等几个宗派。● Life of the Buddha 佛祖生平

The Buddha was a prince in a small kingdom in Northern India. He had everything a boy could want，and everyone loved him，for he was a gentle and thoughtful child. When he grew up he married with a beautiful princess. But when he rode out in the streets of his father's city，he saw things which made him unhappy. First he saw a cripple and a sick man. Then one day he saw a dead body in the road. That night he decided that he could no longer live as a prince. He must go out and try to understand the life of the people. Leaving his wife and a baby son，he joined a group of pilgrims，who wandered through the country.

One day he sat quietly under a tree，and said he would not leave the place until he understood how to live and what was the mean of life. When he got up and joined his friends again，he said he had found what he wanted，For the next forty years，the Buddha，as men called him，went about the country preaching the faith. He taught that by thinking，acting and feeling rightly，men could be happy and that true happiness was to be free of wrong desires and empty hopes. He called this Nirvana，the perfect state，which man reached

He visited his father and wife again，and his little son grew up to be one of his most faithful followers. After Gautama died，his followers were driven out of Northern India by the priests of the Hindu religion. They did not like his teaching that all men are brothers. But Buddhism spreads into the South of India and China and many other countries.

释迦牟尼是释迦王国的一个王子，拥有一个男孩能拥有的一切。那里人人都喜欢他，因为他是一个温和并善于为人着想的人。长大之后，王子和一位美丽的公主结了婚。但当他骑马经过城市菩提树下的佛祖的街道时，看到的景象却使他很难受。他看到过残疾人，也看到过病人。后来有一天，他在路上看到一具死尸，也就是那天晚上他决定不再过王子的生活。他必须去了解人民的生活，于是，他离开了妻子和幼小的儿子，和一批香客一起，走遍了全国各地。佛祖雕像

有一天他静坐在一棵大树下，下决心只有当他懂得生命的真谛和应如何生活时才能离开此地。当他站起来重新和朋友见面时，他说自己找到了寻求的东西。在接下来的四十年中，如来佛释迦牟尼（这是人们对他的尊称）走遍全国各地宣讲自己的信仰。他教导人们，只有思想正确，行为端正，感情正当，人才能快乐，还说真正的快乐就是摆脱邪念和妄想。他把这称作涅磐，也就是完美的境地。

后来，他重回家园见到了父亲和妻子，他的儿子长大之后也成了他最忠实的追随者之一。释迦牟尼死后，其追随者被印度教士赶出了印度北部。因为后者不喜欢他们人人皆兄弟的教导，但无论如何，佛教传到了印度南部、中国和其他许多国家。

4. Ashoka's Dream—Maurya Empire 阿育王的梦——孔雀帝国

The Maurya Empire was a Iron Age historical power in ancient India，ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains（modern Bihar，eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal）in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent，the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra（modern Patna）. The Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya.By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India by defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.

With an area of 5,000,000 sq km，it was one of the world's largest empires in its time and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent，the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas，and to the east stretching into where is now Assam. To the west，it conquered beyond modern Pakistan，annexing Balochistan，south eastern parts of Iran and much of Afghanistan，including the modern Heart and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara，but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga（modern Orissa），till it was conquered by Ashoka. It decline grandually during 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended，and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.

Under Chandragupta，the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region，which was ever under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I，a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors，internal and external trade，agriculture and economic activities，all thrived and expanded across India.

After the Kalinga War，the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony，religious transformation，and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society，while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has set the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka，Southeast Asia，West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.孔雀王朝版图孔雀王朝的雕塑

印度孔雀帝国是一个铁器时代的古印度帝国，孔雀王朝统治从公元前321年开始，到公元前185年结束。由位于印度次大陆东部印度恒河平原的摩揭陀国形成和发展而成（领土范围包括今天的比哈尔，北方邦东部、孟加拉），孔雀帝国的首都是帕塔里普（今巴特那市）。公元前322年，旃陀罗笈多建立了孔雀帝国。到公元前320年，孔雀帝国已经完全占领了印度的西北部，这里曾经被亚历山大帝国的总督统治过。

孔雀帝国的面积大约为500万平方公里，在当时它是世界上最大的帝国之一，也是印度次大陆最大的国家。在帝国的鼎盛时期，帝国北临喜马拉雅山脉的自然边界，东至现在的阿萨姆邦。西濒现代的巴基斯坦，并且包括俾路支省、伊朗的东南部地区和现代阿富汗的大部分。在皇帝旃陀罗笈多和宾头娑罗的领导下，孔雀帝国扩展到了印度的中部和南部地区，但不包括一小部分未知的部落和森林地区的卡林加（现代的奥里萨邦附近），其后被阿育王征服。在阿育王统治结束后的60年中逐渐衰落，于公元前185年瓦解。

在旃陀罗笈多时期，孔雀帝国征服了外印度地区，这里曾被马其顿所统治。旃陀罗笈多击败了塞琉古一世的入侵，他是亚历山大帝国军队中的希腊将领。在旃陀罗和他的继任者的努力下，帝国的内外贸易、农业和经济有所发展。

羯陵伽战争后，帝国在阿育王的统治下经历了近半个世纪的和平。印度孔雀帝国出现了一个社会和谐，宗教开放和科学知识的发展时代。月护王的耆那教信仰，全面提高了社会和宗教改革的水平，而阿育王佛教的信仰为整个印度政治和社会的和平与非暴力的状态奠定了基础。在阿育王大力帮助下，佛教传播到斯里兰卡，东南亚，西亚和欧洲地中海地区的诸多地区。● Black and White on Both Sides—Asoka 黑白双面阿育王

Ashoka was a Buddhist，and later became Buddhist law enforcement. Indian emperor Ashoka's reputation is unmatched，his impact on history can also ranks first in the Indian emperors. The performance of his life can be clearly divided into two parts，the first half is the“black Asoka”era，unified India mainly through struggle and won throne by force，It was about in 261 BC，the conquest of state Kalinga made 150 thousands of people were captured，100 thansands of people were killed. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties. Then，except Mysore region，he unified the whole India. It is said that Ashoka witnessed a mass killing at the scene in the conquest of Kalinga，deeply contrite，and then cease military expansion. And the second is the“white Asoka”era，in efforts to promote Buddhism in the country，and finally contributed to this worldwide religions and prosperity. Buddhism did not become the state religion，or the persecution of other sects，on the contrary，Brahmanism and Jainism were granted generous donations. As Ashoka insisted tolerance and nonviolence，he ruled India up to 41 years in people's cheers.

阿育王是一位佛教徒，后来还成为了佛教的护法。阿育王的知名度在印度帝王中是无与伦比的，他对历史的影响同样也可居印度帝王之首。他一生的业绩可以明显分成两个部分，前半生是“黑阿育王”时代，主要是经过奋斗坐稳王位和通过武力统一印度，在约前261年征服羯陵伽国时有15万人被俘，10万人被杀，死伤数以万计。继而，除迈索尔地区外，统一印度全境。据说，阿育王由于在征服羯陵伽国时亲眼目睹了大量屠杀的场面，深感悔悟，于是停止武力扩张，后半生是“白阿育王”时代，在全国努力推广佛教，终于促成了这一世界性宗教的繁荣。阿育王使佛教成为国教，也没有迫害其他教派，相反对婆罗门教和耆那教也予以慷慨捐助。由于阿育王强调宽容和非暴力主义，他在民众的欢呼声中统治了长达41年的时间。

Chapter 5 Ancient Greece 第五章 上古希腊

1. Splendid Ancient Greek Civilization 灿烂的古希腊文明

Ancient Greece was the source of Western history，lasted about 650 years（800 BC～146 BC）. It located in southern Europe，north-east of the Mediterranean，including the current southern Balkans，Asia Minor peninsula，the West Bank and the many islands in the Aegean Sea. In 5～6 century BC，especially after the War which happened between Greek and Persian，there was a high degree of prosperity and economic life resulted the splendid Greek culture. Ancient Greeks have deep knowledge in philosophy，history，architecture，literature，drama，sculpture，and so on. Ancient Greece has a profound effect on future generations.

Classical Greek culture also had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire，which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe，for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.

古希腊是西方历史的开源，持续了约650年（公元前800年～公元前146年）。古希腊位于欧洲南部，地中海的东北部，包括今巴尔干半岛南部、小亚细亚半岛西岸和爱琴海中的许多小岛。公元前5、6世纪，特别是希波战争以后，经济生活高度繁荣，产生了光辉灿烂的希腊文化，他们在哲学思想、历史、建筑、文学、戏剧、雕塑等诸多方面有很深的造诣，对后世有深远的影响。

古希腊文化对罗马帝国也有着深远的影响，这些文化传播到了地中海和一些欧洲国家，所以古希腊文化也被认为是启蒙文化，它为西方文化发展奠定了基础。

2. Greek Mythology 希腊神话

Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks，concerning their gods and heroes，the nature of the world，and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars studied and realised that it is an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece，its civilization，and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.

希腊神话由古希腊的神话和传说组成，话题涉及神与英雄、自然的本质与祭祀仪式的起源和重要性，这些都属于古希腊宗教的一部分。现代学者研究指出，它是揭示古希腊宗教、政治制度和文明的尝试，并试图理解神话的本质。● The Olympin Gods 奥林匹斯山神

There is a high mountain，between Macedon and Thessaly of eastern Greece. Its cloudy top rushed into the very heavens. On the top of the mountain，the home of the gods was bathed in brightness. Zeus ruled Olympus as the father of gods and human beings. He was not a crude ruler by any standards，but all the gods listened to his final words.

Zeus made them all sit on a committee of twelve members，including six gods and six goddesses. The first in the Olympian crowd sat Zeus himself，he was the overlord of gods and human beings and the operator of the thunder 希腊神话想象图bolt. Next to him was Hera，his proud and green eyed queen. Poseidon was ruler of the sea；and Hades，king of the lower world，had no seat in the committee. Apollo was the god of the sun，music and poetry，while his twin sister artemis was the goddess of the moon and the chase. Athena was the goddess of wisdom and patroness of house. Hestin，the goddess of the family，represented home life and family happiness. The frightening Ares was the god of war. The charming Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty. The god of fire，Hephaestus，was the forger of the thunderbolts of Zeus. the wing footed messenger Hermes was the god of invention and commerce；and the goddess of grains and harvests，Demeter，looked after agriculture and stood for mother of civilization.

All the chief gods mentioned above took human forms of incomparable beauty and graceoften moved by human feelings and desires，they frequently gave way to anger and jealousy. They became involved in ceaselessbattles with the world of man. Among themselves at Olympus they plotted and struggled for power. In the human world they experienced competitions and difficulties. They enjoyed earthly friendships and loves. Crowd of everlastinggods looked and acted in a perfectly human fashion that is what all gods at Olympus actually were.

在马其顿和希腊东部的色萨利之间矗立着一座高山，大雾弥漫的山顶直冲云霄。山顶上，众神们的家园沐浴在阳光之中。宙斯作为山神和人类之父主宰着那里的一切。总得说来，宙斯并不是一个野蛮的独裁统治者。但凡事山神们都要听从他的命令。

宙斯将六男六女山神12人组成一个委员会，宙斯本人则坐第一把交椅，是众神与人类的太上皇，也是雷电的操纵者。他旁边是他那傲慢且爱嫉妒的王后赫拉。波塞冬是大海的统治者；哈得斯是主宰阴间的冥王，他在委员会中没有席位。阿波罗是太阳神、音乐和诗神；他的孪生姐妹阿耳特弥斯是月亮和狩猎女神；雅典娜是智慧女神和家居艺术品的守护女神。赫提斯是家室之神，象征着家庭中的生命与幸福。气势汹汹的阿瑞斯是战神。媚人的阿芙罗狄蒂是爱与美神。火神赫菲斯托斯是宙斯雷电的创造者；以翅代步的信使海尔墨斯掌管商业与发明事务；谷物与丰收女神得墨特尔负责管理农业，她是文明之母。

十二个主要天神们都假装成凡人的样子，他们的美丽与魅力无可匹敌。因常受到凡人情感与愿望的感染，他们不时地勃然大怒，妒嫉别人；他们也会卷入与人类世界无休止的争斗中。在奥林匹斯山上，众神之间也充满了阴谋与权力之争。在凡人的世界里，他们也会经历敌对与挫折。他们珍惜人间的爱与友善。这群长生不老的天神们，其外表与行为完全符合人的思维方式。或许，这就是奥林匹斯山神们的本来面目。

3. The Athena Ushered in the City—Athens 雅典娜迎来的城邦——雅典

Athens is one of the oldest cities in the world，having been continuously inhabitedfor at least 7000 years. it located in 雅典俯瞰图southern Europe，Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millenniumBC and its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC laid the foundations of western civilization. During the early middle Ages，they experienced a decline，then recovered under the later Byzantine Empire and was relatively prosperousduring the period of the Crusades（in 12th and 13th centuries），benefiting from Italian trade. Athens re-emerged in the 19th century as the capital of the independent Greek state.

雅典是世界上最古老城市之一，定居的居民在这里居住至少有7000年。雅典位于欧洲南部，在公元前1000年成为古希腊的领导城邦，而其文化成就则在公元前5世纪就奠定了西方文明的基础。在欧洲中世纪早期，雅典有所衰落，然后在拜占庭帝国相对繁荣的时期中有所恢复，在十字军（12和13世纪）期间，受益于意大利贸易。雅典在第19世纪时得到复兴，成为希腊国家独立后的首都。● Battle of Trojan—Compete for the World's Most Beautiful Women Helen 特洛伊之战——争夺世上最漂亮的女人海伦

Mostly legendary conflict between the Greeks and the people of Troy in western Asia Minor.It was dated by later Greeks in the 12th or 13th century BC. It was celebrated in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey，in Greek tragedy，and in Roman literature. In Homer's account，the prince of Trojan Paris ran off with the beautiful Helen，wife of Menelaus of Sparta，whose brother Agamemnon then led a Greek expedition to retrieve her. The war lasted 10 years；its participants included Hector，Achilles，Priam，Odysseus，and Ajax. It was ended in a trick. The Greeks built a large wooden horse in which a raiding party hid. When the Greeks pretended to leave，the Trojans brought the horse into the walled city and the Greeks swarmed out，opening the gates to their comrades and sacking Troy，killing the men and enslaving the women. The legend's actual historical content is not known by now.

特洛伊战争是传说中在小亚细亚西部希腊人和特洛伊人之间发生的战争。后由希腊人在公元前12或前13世纪记载。在荷马的《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》以及希腊悲剧和罗马文学中也均有记载。荷马的书中认为特洛伊王子帕里斯和斯巴达王墨涅拉俄斯的王后海伦私奔，于是墨涅拉俄斯的兄长阿伽门农带领希腊部队去解救她。该战争持续了10年，其参与者包括赫克托耳、阿喀琉斯、普里阿摩斯、奥德修斯和埃阿斯。战争最后在一次诡计中结束。希腊人修建了一个巨大的木马，并将一支突击队隐藏其中。当希腊人假装败退时，特洛伊人将木马带进了城内。希腊人在夜间从木马中出来，为自己的军队打开了城门并对特洛伊城进行洗劫，将男子杀害，女子俘虏。如今，该传奇的史实部分已不可知。

4. Three Hundred Warriors in Sparta and Marathon 斯巴达三百勇士和马拉松

The Greco-Persian Wars（also often called the Persian Wars）were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenicworld that started in 499 BC 特洛伊战争and lasted until 449 BC. Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria，and in 498 BC，these forces helped Eretia to capture and burnt the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The revolt continued，with the two sides effectively stalematedthroughout 497～495 BC. In 494 BC，the Persians regrouped and attacked the centre of the revolt in Miletus. At the Battle of Lade，the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat，and the rebellion collapsed，In 493 BC，all revolts retreated and ceased.

Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts，and from the interference of the mainland Greeks，Darius embarked a scheme to conquer Greece，and to punish Athens and Eretria for burning Sardis. The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC they eonguered Thrace and Macedon under the command of Persian general Mardonius，but small mistakes made it finally failed. In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece，this time they acrossed the Aegean Sea，under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades，However，they subsequently swept Athens，but the army was defeated by Athens in the war of marathon，the first Persian invasion stop there. Darius then began to plan the complete the conquest of Greece，but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes I.

In 480 BC，Xerxes personally led the armies to second Persian invasion of Greece，it was one of the largest invade in history of ancient warfare. Persians defeated the Allies of Greek at the Battle of Thermopylae led by Sparta and Athens，and overrun most of Greece. However，the Persians suffered a severedefeated by Greece armies at the Battle of Salamis. Then，the confederated Greeks changed to offensive，defeating the Persian armies at the Battle of Plataea，and ending the invasionof Persian.

The allied Greeks armies followed up their success，destroyed the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale，defeated Persian garrisons from Sestos（479 BC）and Byzantium（478 BC）. The actions of the general Pausanias alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans at the siege of Byzantium，and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted by leadership of Athenian，as the so-called Delos League. The Delos League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades，beginning with the expulsionof the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC，the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However，the League involved in an Egyptian revolt（from 460 BC～454 BC）resulted in a disastrous，and a further campaigning was suspended. A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC，but achieved little，and when it withdrew，the Greco-Persian Wars gradually end. Some historicalsources suggest the situation was ended after it singed a peace treaty between Athens and Persia，so-called Peace of Callias.绘于公元前5世纪陶杯上的希腊重装步兵与波斯战士的战斗希波战争图示

希波战争（也常被称为波斯战争）是指在公元前502年至前449年之间，波斯阿契美尼德王朝与希腊城邦国家之间的一系列冲突。雅典和俄瑞特利亚为阿里司塔哥拉斯人提供军事援助，并于公元前498年协助后者占领并焚毁了波斯的地方首府萨第斯。前497年至前495年之间战况一时陷于胶着，波斯人在公元前494年进行了军队重组，进击叛乱的中心米利都，在拉德海战中，艾奥尼亚人遭受了重大的失败，叛乱也同时崩溃，至公元前493年，所有的叛乱都被镇压了下去。

为了保卫波斯帝国避免更大规模的叛乱，并且免受内陆希腊人的干预，大流士一世规划了一个征服希腊的蓝图，并且向雅典和俄瑞特利亚报萨第斯被焚的一箭之仇。第一次入侵始于前492年，波斯将军马多尼乌斯指挥下军队攻下了色雷斯和马其顿，却因征途中的小差错而功败垂成。波斯人又于前490年派去了第二支军队，在达提斯和阿塔佛涅斯的指挥下横渡爱琴海，占领了基克拉泽斯，围困了俄瑞特利亚并最终将其夷为平地。然而，他们随后挥师雅典，却在马拉松战役被雅典军队大败，波斯人的第一次入侵就此止步。随后大流士开始策划完成对希腊的征服，但大流士在前486年死去，其征服希腊的重担落到他的儿子薛西斯一世的身上。

公元前480年，薛西斯一世亲率一支大军开始了对希腊的第二次入侵，这次行动是古代军事史上最大规模的入侵之一。波斯军队在温泉关战役击败由斯巴达和雅典领导的希腊联军后，曾一度占领了希腊的大部分土地，然而他们的海军却在接下来的萨拉米斯海战中被希腊联合海军击溃。随后希腊人转守为攻，在帕拉提亚战役中再次得胜，从而结束了波斯的侵略。

希腊联军乘胜追击，在米卡勒战役中扫除波斯海军残部，并在公元前479年和公元前478年分别击溃屯于塞斯托斯和拜占庭的波斯守军。在围困拜占庭期间，希腊联军的帕萨尼阿斯将军的所作所为让许多希腊城邦疏远了斯巴达，他们转而接受雅典的领导，形成了提洛同盟并在随后的战斗里将波斯军队彻底驱逐出欧洲。在公元前466年的欧里梅敦战役中同盟军终于解放了爱奥尼亚全境。提洛同盟在公元前460年～公元454年间插手埃及叛乱时遭受灭顶之灾，被迫停止进军。在公元前451年他们还派出过一支海军到塞浦路斯却无功而返。此后希波战争的战火逐渐冷却。一些史料表明双方的敌对状态最终在雅典和波斯签署卡里亚斯合约后结束。● Marathon 马拉松

According to Herodotus，an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistancebefore the battle. He ran a distance of over 140 miles and arrived in Sparta the day after he left. Then，following the battle，the Athenian army marched the 25 or so miles back to Athens at a very high pace（considering the quantity of armour，and the fatigue after the battle），in order to stop Persian force occuping Cape Sounion. They arrived back in the late afternoon，and saw the Persian ships turned away from Athens，this completed the Athenian victory.

Later on，in people's imagination，these two events became confused with each other，leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events. This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle，to announce the Greek victory with the word“Nenikēkamen！”（Attic：Νενικ καμεν（We were victorious！）），he promptly died of exhaustion.马拉松

根据希罗多德的说法，在战斗开始之前，一个名叫费里皮德斯的雅典人被派遣到斯巴达求援，他跑的距离超过了140英里，一天后他到达了斯巴达。在战役结束后，雅典军队以非常快的速度（考虑到装甲的数量和战役后的疲劳等状况）行进了25英里，回到了雅典，以避免波斯海军控制苏尼翁海岬。他们在傍晚回来，看到波斯船离开雅典，从而完成了雅典军队的胜利。

后来，在人们的想象中，这些事件被混淆了，导致这个事件产生出一个具有传奇性而有失准确的版本。这个谣传认为，当雅典军在马拉松平原大败波斯军后，使者费里皮德斯由马拉松平原跑回雅典报捷（我们胜利了），途中从未停顿。当费里皮德斯回到雅典，将胜利的消息转告雅典人后，当即死去。● The Peloponnesian War 伯罗奔尼撒战争

The Peloponnesian War，431 to 404 BC，was an ancient Greek war fought by Athens and its empireagainst the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. They fought several times and Sparta won the last victory.

Historians have traditionally divided the Archidamian War into three phases. In the first phase，Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica，while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese attempting to suppress the unrest in its empire. This period of the war was concluded in 421 BC，with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty，however，was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC，Athens dispatched a massive expeditionary force to attack Syracuse in Sicily；the attack failed disastrously with the destruction of the entire force. In 413 BC，the final phase of the war started，Ionian War. In this phase，Sparta it was the sought and received support from Persia，but Athens supported rebellions of persid in the Aegean Sea and Ionia，it destructed the relationship between Athens and Persian. At the end，the army of Athens lose the battle，in Aegospotam in 405 BC. Athens was forced to surronded，the war ended the following year.

The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations，Athens，the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning，was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection，while Sparta became the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece；poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese，while Athens found itself completely devastated，and never regained its pre-war prosperity. The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society；the conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta，each of which supported friendly political factions within other states，make the whole Greek region more closely linked.

Greek warfare，meanwhile，originally a limited and formalized form of conflict，was transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states，complete with atrocitieson a large scale. Shattering religious and cultural taboos，devastatingvast swathes of countryside，and destroying whole cities，the Peloponnesian War marked the dramatic end of the golden age of Greece in 5th century BC.

伯罗奔尼撒战争是以雅典为首的提洛同盟与以斯巴达为首的伯罗奔尼撒联盟之间的一场战争。这场战争从公元前431年一直持续到公元前404年，期间双方曾几度停战，最终斯巴达获得胜利。伯罗奔尼撒战争

传统上，历史学家将伯罗奔尼撒战争分为三个阶段。第一阶段，斯巴达发动了多次入侵阿提卡的战争。而雅典利用其海军优势袭击伯罗奔尼撒海岸试图压制斯巴达。这一时期的战争结束于公元前421年，雅典和斯巴达签署了象征和平的尼西阿斯条约，然而，该条约很快就被破坏，双方新的战斗在伯罗奔尼撒半岛展开。第二阶段，公元前415年，雅典派出大量的军队对西西里岛进行远征；对雅典来说，西西里远征远远地超出了它的能力。最终远征失败，并且还给雅典带来了灾难性的后果。雅典的实力大损，一蹶不振。第三阶段，公元前413年开始了最后阶段的战争，称为爱奥尼亚战争。在这一阶段，斯巴达寻求并得到了波斯的支持，而雅典却支持波斯在爱琴海和爱奥尼亚的地区叛乱，这一做法破坏了雅典和波斯帝国的关系。最终，在公元前405年，雅典的舰队在伊哥斯波塔米战役中战败。次年，雅典投降，伯罗奔尼撒战争结束。

伯罗奔尼撒战争改变了古希腊世界。从国家关系层面上讲，雅典由战争开始之前希腊最强大的城邦，成为了完全服从于斯巴达的城邦，而斯巴达则成为希腊的龙头老大。战争波及到整个希腊；对于伯罗奔尼撒半岛的各个城邦来说，贫困成为了一种普遍现象。而雅典因为此次战争几乎完全被摧毁，所以并没有恢复到战前的繁荣。战争对希腊社会之间也造成了微妙的变化和冲突；民主雅典和寡头斯巴达，其中每个互相扶持友好的政治派别都在其他城邦进行了活动，使整个希腊地区的联系更加紧密。

伯罗奔尼撒战争由原来正常的军事战争冲突，演变成了各个城邦之间的全面斗争，这一战争规模大、范围广，打破了宗教和文化禁忌，毁灭了大片农村，并波及到整个城市，造成重大损失。戏剧性的伯罗奔尼撒战争标志着希腊的黄金时代在公元前5世纪结束。

5. “To Conquer the World”—Alexander Empire “征服世界”——亚历山大帝国

Borned in Pella in 356 BC，Alexander III of Macedon，commonly known as Alexander the Great，was tutored by the famed philosopher Aristotle. In 336 BC he succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon to the throne after Philip was assassinated. By the age of thirty，He had created one of the largest empires in ancient history，stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalaya. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of the most successful commanders of all the time.

Philip II had brought most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony，using both military and diplomatic means.Upon Philip's death；Alexander inherited not only a strong kingdom but also an experienced army. He succeeded in gaining support from generals of Greece，this made his authority firmly established and then launched the military plans for expansion. In 334 BC he invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor and began a series of campaigns which lasting for ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles，most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela.

Subsequently he overthrewthe Persian king Darius III and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire. Following his desire to reach the“ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea”，he invaded India in 326 BC，but was eventually forced to turn back.

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC，without realizing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the following years Alexander's death brought a series of civil wars.

Although he is mostly remembered for his vast conquests，Alexander's lasting legacy was not his reign，but the cultural diffusion. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic culture，aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire until the mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles，and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which generals，even to this day，compare themselves and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactical exploits.亚历山大正在骑着他的爱马出征亚历山大大帝征服过的地域

马其顿的亚力山大三世，通常被称为亚历山大大帝，于公元前356年出生在佩拉，少年时师从著名哲学家亚里士多德。公元前336年在父亲菲利普二世被暗杀后，继承了王位。在30岁时建立了古代世界历史上最大的帝国之一，疆域西起古希腊、马其顿，东到印度恒河流域。他在战争中几乎百战百胜，被认为是有史以来最成功的指挥官。

菲利普二世在位时，使用军事和外交手段已经将大多数希腊城邦置于马其顿霸权下。所以亚力山大不仅继承了一个强大的王国，还拥有了一支经验丰富的军队。他成功获得了父亲在位时的希腊将军的支持，这使得他的权威得以确立，从而顺利地发动军事扩张计划。公元前334年他入侵小亚细亚并开展了持续十年的行动。亚力山大后来在一系列的决定性战役中打败了波斯的军队，其中最为著名的就是高加米拉会战。

随后他彻底击败了波斯国王大流士三世进而征服了整个波斯帝国。接着为了达成“到达世界的尽头，伟大的外海”的愿望。公元前326年，他率军入侵印度，但最终被迫撤回。

公元前323年，他在没有实现一系列有计划的征服行动时死于巴比伦。在之后的几年中，亚力山大帝国因亚历山大帝的死亡引发的一系列内战而分裂。

虽然亚历山大大帝令人印象深刻的是他的征服行动，但最有深远影响意义的并不是自己对征服地区的统治，而是文化传播。亚力山大在东方建立了希腊殖民地并带来了希腊文化，对各个领域的影响一直延续到15世纪的拜占庭帝国。作为一个经典的阿喀琉斯式的英雄，亚历山大成为了传奇，并将历史和神话、希腊和非希腊文化融汇贯通。他还成为后来西方世界评价军事家的参照。即使到了今天，在世界各地的很多军事院校仍然讲授他的战略功勋。

Chapter 6 Superpower—The Roman 第六章 超级大国——罗马

1. AWolf Feeds the Country 母狼喂出的国家

The twin brothers Romulus and Remus were the sons of the God Mars. When they were very young they were abandoned by the banks of the River Tiber and left to fend for themselves. Luckily for them，they were found by a she-wolf who took pity on them fed them with her milk. Later a shepherd found the boys and took them home to look after them. He ended up raising the boys as his own children. The boys grew up to be very strong and clever，so they decided to build a town on the spot where the Shepherd had found them. Shortly after building the town the twins had a big argument about who should be in charge. Romulus overpowered his brother Remus who died in the fight. Romulus then became the first king of this town which he named Rome.

As you can see，the early days of the City of Rome are surrounded with mystery. In fact，many Historians believe is based upon circumstance as there is little evidence remaining of what Rome was like two and a half thousand years ago. What we do have is a Legend，a story that is partly based on fact，partly based on fiction.

罗慕路斯和雷穆斯这对双胞胎兄弟是战神的儿子。小的时候，他们被遗弃在台伯河中，失去了母亲的照顾。幸运的是，一只母狼发现了他们并且喂他们吃奶。后来，一个牧羊人发现了他们，把他们带到自己的家里照顾。他将男孩当作自己的亲生孩子来抚养。孩子们长大后变得非常强大、聪明，他们决定在牧羊人发现了自己的地方建立一个城市。城市建立不久后，兄弟俩因为谁应该成为城市的主人产生了争论。罗慕路斯最终杀死了他的兄弟雷穆斯，成为第一位国王，城市则因罗慕洛斯的名字而命名为罗马。

由此可见，罗马早期的历史充满了传奇色彩。事实上，许多历史学家基于目前可知的少量的证据推测出了几千年前罗马的面貌。比如，我们知道的罗慕路斯和雷穆斯的故事，它部分是事实，部分只是传说。● The Growth of Rome 帝国的成长

Rome was founded in about 750 BC. At first Rome was a tiny village，surrounded by lots of other little villages that ran their own affairs. By 130AD though Rome controlled most of Europe，had conquered Britain and had an empire that stretched a long way into Asia and across Northern Africa.

From 753 BC to 509 BC，Rome was ruled by Kings. It became a Republic because the people of Rome didn't like the way that King Tarquinius had ruled：they said he was a tyrant（Nasty and greedy man）.

The Republic（a country without a King or Emperor）was set up to make sure that there weren't any more Tyrants in charge of Rome. In the Republic there were different parts of the Government. The Three main parts of the government were the Senate，the consuls and the Assemblies.The Senate was a bit like our parliament. People were elected by citizens and they had a discussion then voted to decide what should and should not happen. The Senators（people in the senate）elected two consuls to act as leaders. These men decided what would be discussed and had a lot of extra powers. The people though had a lot of power as they could vote to say yes or no to decisions at an Assembly. An Assembly was a gathering of Roman citizens. At these gatherings the citizens discussed new Laws and voted on them to decide whether or not they should become Law. The citizens also elected new senators and consuls at these meetings. The rich had more votes than the other citizens so power was not shared equally. Rich citizens had more political power. Those without vote-women，slaves and those people born in the provinces-had the least power. The Roman Republic lasted for more than 450 years until Octavian became Emperor（he later changed his name to Augustus）.罗马共和国的疆域

In the 2nd and 1st centuries，the Senate was composed of a group of aristocrats whom desired more and more power for themselves. With a growing population，Rome began to experience social unrest as more and more people became even poorer. While Roman soldiers were fighting the Punic Wars，their lands had been acquired by the wealthy that could afford to buy large estates. These elites also pushed many poor farmers out that were then recruited for military service. An estimated 19,000 people had left Rome by 136 BC. These landless men could have been recruited for the army. After the Gracchi deaths，the Republic steadily declined as political parties became incredibly competitive. Assassinations，civil war，violence，and bribery marked this period of decline. Egotistical military leaders marched to Rome and took over，but were soon made victims. With the rise and assassination of Julius Caesar，the Republic finally collapsed because the Senate had been behind the conspiracy. Inevitably，Augustus used his political strength to gain the popularity of the people and the army. He soon became the Princepate of Rome and all power was given to him. Symbolically，the Senate continued to function but with little political influence it never regained its former power.

罗马城大约在公元前约750年建成。起初，罗马只是一个小村庄，与周围的许多其他的小村子一样管理自己的事务。但是，在公元130年，罗马控制了欧洲大部分地区，征服了不列颠群岛，势力延伸到亚洲和非洲北部。

从公元前753年到509年，罗马一直都是由君主专制的国王统治的。但后来，罗马成为了共和国，因为罗马人民不喜欢当时的国王塔奎尼乌斯的统治——他们说他是个暴君（肮脏的、贪婪的人）。

共和国（国家没有国王或皇帝）的成立，是为了确保罗马不被暴君统治。在共和国时期，有不同的政府部门。政府的三个主要部门是元老院、执政官和公民会议。元老院有点像今天的议会，由被选出来的贵族讨论投票来决定重要事务。元老院选举出的两个执政官担任行政负责人，他们掌管日常的行政事务。公民会议是罗马公民的一个组织机构。在这些会议中由公民投票来决定制订新的法律。公民也可以在这些会议中当选为新的元老和官员。富人比其他公民拥有更多的权利，比如选举权，因此，他们不能享有平等的权利。富有的市民有更多的政治权力，而妇女，奴隶和那些出生在外省的人则没有被选举权和选举权。罗马共和国持续了大约450年，直到屋大维成为皇帝（他后来改名为奥古斯都）。

在公元元年前后，由元老院组成的贵族越来越渴望获得权利。随之人口的增长，罗马的社会开始动荡，越来越多的人变得更加贫穷。而在迦太基战争中战斗的罗马士兵，他们的土地已被有钱的人买走并把许多贫穷的农民赶走，然后被招募入伍。到公元前136年时，估计有19,000人离开了罗马。这些失去土地的男性大多被招募进入军队。在格拉古兄弟去世后，共和国开始衰落。暗杀、南北战争、暴力以及贿赂都成为这一时期的标志。军事独裁者进入了罗马，但很快就成为受害者。共和国在元老院阴谋刺杀了凯撒后彻底崩溃。而奥古斯却用他的政治实力获得了人民和军队的支持。他很快成为罗马及其所有征服地区的统治者。此时，虽然元老院名义上继续存在，但已不复往日的政治影响力。● Army：Super Power of Empire 军队：帝国强盛的力量

The Army was the main reason for Rome became such a large empire. It was also the tool that the Romans ruled and conquered the people. In order to achieve this target，army had to built very loyal and highly organized. The army was made up of Roman Citizens and people who had previously fought against the Romans. To make sure that the auxilia（ordinary or enslaved soldier）remained loyal，the Romans did several things. First they were placed with legions that were based a long way. Second they would get freedoms and possibly citizenship upon the completion of 25 years service. Both of these were highly valued by the auxilia and there was very little evidence of these soldiers rebelling against their Roman masters.The army was organized in a very simple way. 800 Legionairres（Roman Citizens who were in the army）would form a Legion. This would be split into centuries（80 men）controlled by a Centurion. These units would be divided intosmaller groups with different jobs to perform on a daily basis. There were many legions throughout the empire；with more in the outlying regions（Britain for example had 4 legions at the time of the invasion）. Each legion would have a General who would receive orders from Rome and make reports back to Rome. In the Provinces（countries conquered and ruled by Rome）there would also be a Governor for whom they would work.The Roman soldier was well equipped，well trained and well looked after. They had superior methods of training and used techniques such as the tortoise to ensure that they were strong in battle.罗马军队

罗马军队是罗马成为这样一个大帝国的主要原因，同时也是罗马帝国用来统治和征服人民的工具。为了实现这个目标，罗马不得不建立非常忠诚并具有高度组织性的军队。罗马军队由罗马公民和曾反抗罗马人的外族组成。为了确保辅助士兵（普通或奴役的士兵）对国家保持忠诚，罗马人做了这样几件事。首先，士兵被安置在距离自己家乡很远的地方；其次，他们在完成25年的服役后将得到自由和公民权。这些都起到很好的效果，因为很少有证据证明这些士兵反抗过罗马。罗马军队选用一个非常简单的方法进行管理。军队中的罗马公民将形成一个军团。然后将其分裂成由一个百夫长控制的战斗单位（800人）。这些部队再分成更小的作战单位，每天执行不同的作战任务。在整个帝国内，特别是在边远地区（英国，例如有4个军团在入侵时）部署了很多军团。每个军团会接受来自罗马的命令并向罗马复命。在州（罗马征服和统治的国家）还将有为州长工作的军团。这些罗马士兵装备精良，训练有素，后勤补给良好。他们卓越的训练方法和军事技术，保证了他们的战斗能力。● Empire's Peak 帝国的鼎盛

During the reign of Octavian，after a bitter fight year，he attracted the tribe in northern Spain，in BC 19 years completely conquered Spain. From 16 BC onwards the Ministry of Imperial troops Alps and the Danube upstream，established two provinces，Ray pedicle and norick. Then he sent troops to the Danube River，the establishment of Pannonia and Mixi Yatwo provinces. During 12 BC to 5 BC after a prolonged war，he conquered the land between the Rhine to the Elbe. But the new land continues to riots. In 9 BC，the Roman general Varusin suffered the uprising of the Germanic but the whole army was annihilated，so Rome not to give up the Rhine to the Elbe between the land. After Octavian haven't hold major conquest，followed by over a hundred years is a long period of stability，called the Roman peace.

屋大维在位期间，经过对西班牙北部部落的连年苦战，在公元前19年完全征服了西班牙。从公元前16年起罗马帝国出兵阿尔卑斯山东部和多瑙河上游，建立了雷蒂安和诺里克两个行省。接着又出兵多瑙河中下游，建立潘诺尼亚和米西亚两行省。罗马在公元前12年到公元前5年间经过连年征战，征服了莱茵河到易北河之间的土地。但新征服的土地不断发生暴动。公元前9年，罗马将领瓦鲁斯在镇压日耳曼人起义中全军覆没，以至于罗马不得已放弃莱茵河到易北河间的土地。之后没有进行大规模的征伐，随后的百余年是一段很长的稳定局面，称之为罗马和平时期。

2. God's“Gospel” 上帝的“福音”

Christmas Day is December 25 which celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ，the founder of the Christian religion，is the biggest and best-loved holiday in the West Countries.耶稣

According to the Bible，the holy book of Christians，God decided to allow his only son，Jesus Christ，to be born to a human mother and live on earth so that people could understand God better and learn to love God and each other.“Christmas”meaning“celebration of Christ”honors the time when Jesus was born by a young Jewish woman Maria.

Maria was engaged to be married with Joseph，a carpenter，before they came together，she was found to be with child. Because Joseph，her husband，was a righteous man and did not want to expose her to public disgrace，he decided to divorce with her quietly. When he was considering this decision，an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said，“Do not be afraid to take Maria home as your wife，because what is conceivedin her is from the Holy Spirit. She will give birth to a son，and you are to give him the name Jesus，because he will save people from their sins.”

Although the exact date of the birth of Jesus is not known，people just knew his birthday nearly 2,000 years ago，the calendar on the supposed date divides all time into B.C.（Before Christ）and A.D.（in the year of our Lord）. For the first 300 years，Jesus' birthday was celebrated on different dates. Untill the year of 354，church leaders chose December 25 as his birthday.

12月25日是圣诞节，它是庆祝基督教创始人耶稣诞生的日子，是目前西方国家最大、最受人们喜爱的节日。

据基督教徒的圣书《圣经》曰，上帝决定让他的独生子耶稣转为世人，然后就在人间生活，以便人们能更好地了解上帝、热爱上帝和关爱他人。“圣诞节”的意思是“庆祝基督诞生”，庆祝一个年轻的犹太妇女玛丽娅生下耶稣的节日。

玛丽娅已和木匠约瑟夫订婚。可是，在他们结婚之前，约瑟夫发现玛丽娅已怀孕。因为约瑟夫是个正派的人，他又不想把这件事说出去让他丢脸，所以想悄悄地和她分手。就在约瑟夫正考虑这事的时候，天使出现在他的梦中，天使对他说，“不要嘀咕了，把玛丽娅娶回家。她怀的孩子是圣灵。她将生下个男孩子，你们给孩子起名叫耶稣，因为他将把人们从罪恶中拯救出来。”

尽管耶稣的确切生日并不清楚，人们只知道大约是在2000年前，但是后来的日历还是按着假定日期把时间分为公元前（BC，耶稣基督诞生前）和公元后（AD，“有了我们的主的年代”）。在公元后的头三百年间，耶稣的生日是在不同的日子庆祝的。直到公元354年，教会领导人才把12月25日定为耶稣基督的生日。

3. Misunderstanding and Truth—The Queen of Egypt Cleopatra 误解与真相——埃及艳后克里奥佩特拉

Alexander the Great died at the age of 32，by the time Cleopatra was 23，she was a Greek descendedfrom one of Alexander's generals. When she became the Queen，she looked back to the Golden Age of Alexander's world empire and was determined to do even better than him.

In Fact，she had gone ever further than Alexander. She had entered into Rome as Queen of Egypt and consort of Julius Caesar，the most powerful man in the world at that time.埃及艳后

These were complex times. To keep throne，she had to be adaptable，ruthless，intelligent and a great politician. Cleopatra had all these traits which could explam why history has provided us with lots of interpretations about her. Poets saw her as a heroine dying for love in Renaissance. And painters alludedto her eroticismin their bare breasted portrayals of the dying queen. Hollywood reinforced the image of Cleopatra as a vamp starting with Theda Bara's seductive portrayal in 1917.

But who was the real Cleopatra？ What did she really look like？

People may get the answer in Berlin，because there is the best portrait of Cleopatra in the world. There are very few ancient sculptures that are existed. So this is probably as close as we're ever going to get to how she really looked. She's rather plain looking. Her hair is tied up in a simple bun. It's a classical Greek hairstyle. And her nose is a little bit too long and hooked at the end. Her mouth is not exactly sensual.

We know from ancient sources that her hair was a reddish color，wavy. She's not wearing any jewelry. There are no earrings，no necklace. This is not the portrait of a femme fatale.

埃及伟大的帝王亚历山大帝于32岁驾崩，那时，克里奥佩特拉年仅23岁，她是亚历山大大帝手下一名将领的后代。女王即位之后，她一面追怀着亚历山大帝国的黄金时期，一面决定自己要做得更出色。

事实上，女王远行的疆界确实比亚历山大大帝更远，她以埃及王后和世界上最有权力的人——朱利安·恺撒情人的身份走进了罗马。

当时局面非常复杂。要保住王位，君主必须是一名灵活、无情、机智兼出色的政客。这些特点克里奥佩特拉全部具备，这也解释了为什么我们会从历史上看到关于她的多种不同说辞。文艺复兴时期的诗人将她视成为爱情献身的女英雄。画家们把她描绘为裸胸垂死的贪欲女王。好莱坞的电影强化了她的荡妇形象——第一部始于1917年桑德·芭拉媚人的扮演。

可是克里奥佩特女王究竟是什么样的人？她的外貌是怎样的呢？

在柏林，或许能找到答案——这里有全世界最好的克里奥佩特拉女王的肖像。现在仅存的古代雕像已是凤毛麟角，所以这一尊也许能帮助我们尽多地了解她的外貌。从外观来看，她的长相比较普通。头发结的是个简单的髻，这是希腊古典发型。鼻子是稍有点长的鹰钩鼻。嘴也算不上性感。

我们从古代资料了解到她的头发是浅红色、有波纹的。她不饰带任何珠宝。没有耳环，没有项链。这并非一个性感尤物的相貌。● Confident and Courageous Women 自信勇敢的妇女

In the past，women in Egypt had always been powerful：Queen Hatshepsut，Nefertiti and now Cleopatra. But during the era of the Ptolemy's，the role of Greek women had changed. They gained an identity apart from that of their husbands or families. Women participated in the arts and civic life and marriage became a union of two people，not just two houses. The woman of this period shew a strong personality and self-confidence. They're almost haunting. Women would not have this power again until the 21th century. Cleopatra was a female Who was well educated，strong minded with ideas of her own.

The ancient sources tell us she was intelligent，witty，charming，a linguist and along with this，she had a tremendous determination. It was this amazing combination of abilities that made Cleopatra the most famous woman in history.埃及艳后复原图

过去，埃及妇女的势力向来不弱，如：哈特谢普苏特女王、奈费尔提蒂女王以及这位克里奥佩特拉女王。但在托勒密王朝时期，希腊妇女的角色完全改变了。她们取得独立于丈夫和家庭外的身份，参与到艺术和市民生活中，并以两个个人而不是两家人的名义缔结婚姻。这一时期的妇女形象表现出了强烈的个性与自信。这一点尤其令人印象深刻。直到21世纪以前妇女们都没有再拥有过这种权力。克里奥佩特拉女王自己便是受过良好教育、意志坚强、有自己思想的一位女性。古亚历山大图书馆遗址

古代资料还告诉我们，女王聪明、诙谐、迷人、精通多种语言，而且她还具有惊人的毅力。正是集合了这种种才华而决非美貌，才使得克里奥佩特拉女王成为历史上最负盛名的女性。● Guardian of Books 书籍的守护者

As an intellectual，Cleopatra would have been heartbroken：when during fighting between Egyptians and Caesar's Roman troops，there occurred one of the greatest tragedies of the ancient world-the burning of the library of Alexandria. It's sad to think about what was lost in the fire at Alexandria. There were the missing manuscriptsof Aristotle and Plato. There was an entire room with editions of Homer. Maybe even there were early manuscripts of the Old Testament，which could probably help settle Biblical questions today.

Cleopatra was eventually able to get back 200,000 of the manuscripts. Books were very important to her. It's ironic that today everybody knows her for her beauty，but it was her intelligencethat was most important asset she had.

在埃及人与恺撒的罗马军队作战期间发生了古代一大惨剧——亚历山大图书馆的焚毁。作为一位知识人士，这一悲剧一定曾让克里奥佩特拉女王为之哀恸不已。亚历山大图书馆在那次火灾中的损失是令人伤心的，因为遗失的亚里土多德和柏拉图手稿估计就在其中，图书馆里还有一整个房间放的是荷马的作品。如果《圣经·旧约》的早期文稿没有在那时遗失的话，也许今日我们对《圣经》的许多疑惑已经解开了。

最后，女王找回了二十万册文稿——书籍对她太重要了。不过，颇具讽刺的是她以美貌蜚声于今日世界，而其实智慧才是她最可贵的资产。

4. Rival of the Roman Empire—Cartha's Ginian Commander Hannibal 罗马帝国的劲敌——迦太基统帅汉尼拔

Hannibal，son of Hamilcar Barca（247～183 or 182 BC）was a Carthaginian military commander and tactician. He is generally considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. His father，Hamilcar Barca，was the leader of Carthaginian commander. During the First Punic War，his younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal，and he was brother-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair.

Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in Mediterranean，when the Roman Republic established its supremacy and occured strong conflict with other countries such as Carthage，the Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedon，Syracuse，and the Seleucid empire. One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War，when he marched an army，which included war elephants，from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into northern Italy. In his first few years in Italy，he won three dramatic victories—Trebia（218 BC），Trasimene（217 BC），and Cannae（216 BC）—and won over many allies of Rome. Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years，but a Roman counter-invasion of North Africa forced him to return to Carthage，where he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama. Scipio had studied Hannibal's tactics and brilliantly devised some of his own，and finally defeated Rome's nemesis at Zama.卢浮宫的汉尼拔雕像

After the war，Hannibal successfully ran for the office of suffete. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. However，Hannibal's reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome，and he fled into voluntary exile. During this time，he lived at the Seleucid court，where he acted as military adviser to Antiochus III in his war against Rome. After Antiochus met defeat at Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome's terms，Hannibal fled again，making a stop in Armenia. His flight ended in the court of Bithynia，where he achieved an outstanding naval victory against a fleet from Pergamum. He was afterwards betrayed to the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself.

汉尼拔，是哈米尔卡·巴卡的儿子（公元前247至公元前183或182年），也是迦太基军队指挥官和著名军事家。他被普遍认为是历史上最伟大的军事家之一。他的父亲哈米尔卡，是卓越的迦太基统帅，在第一次布匿战争中，他的兄弟马戈和他姐夫哈斯德鲁巴都担任过军队统帅。

汉尼拔生活地中海历史上的紧张时期，当时罗马共和国建立并与其他大国如迦太基、希腊马其顿王国、塞琉古帝国发生了严重的冲突。汉尼拔最著名的军事成就是在二次布匿战争爆发中，他带领一支军队，其中包括战象，从伊比利亚半岛翻越比利牛斯山和阿尔卑斯山进入意大利北部。在他进入意大利的最初几年里，他赢得了特拉比亚战役（公元前218年）、特拉西美诺湖战役（公元前217年）和坎尼战役（公元前216年）这三场戏剧性的胜利，从而争取到了许多罗马同盟国的支持。汉尼拔在意大利活动一共15年了，但罗马通过入侵北非迫使他返回迦太基，他在扎马战役中被大西庇阿击败。西庇阿研究汉尼拔的战术并出色的设计了一些他自己的战术，并最终在扎马打败了罗马的宿敌。

战争结束后，汉尼拔成功竞选了迦太基的行政官。他开始了政治和金融改革，并向罗马支付战争赔偿。然而，汉尼拔的改革是不受迦太基贵族的欢迎，他被迫流亡。在流亡期间，他生活在塞琉古王国并担任那里的国王安条克三世担任军事顾问，参与对罗马的战争。安条克三世后来在与罗马的战争中失败，被迫接受罗马的议和条件。汉尼拔又被迫出逃，在亚美尼亚做了短暂停留后。投靠当时正与罗马盟国帕加马交战的比提尼亚国王普鲁西亚斯一世，他在那里指挥一支海军舰队取得了对帕加马的胜利。他后来被普鲁西亚斯出卖，服毒自杀。

5. Volcano Engulfed the City—Pompeii 火山吞没的城市——庞贝古城

By the 1st century AD，Pompeii was one of a number of towns located around the base of the volcano，Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities，most famously Herculaneum，also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. By coincidence it was the day after Vulcanalia，the festival of the Roman god of fire.庞贝古城

A recent multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims，merged with numerical simulations and experiments indicate that at Vesuvius and surrounding town's heat was the main cause of death of people，previously supposed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of this study show that exposure to at least 250℃ hot surges at a distance of 10 kilometers from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death，even if people were sheltered within buildings.

The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of tephra，in total 25 meters deep. Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum，in a version which was written 25 years after the event.

The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is generally accepted as having started on 24 August 79，relying on one version of the text of Pliny's letter. However the archeological excavations of Pompeii suggest that the city was buried about three months later. This is supported by another version of the letter which gives the date of the eruption as November 23. People buried in the ash appear to be wearing warmer clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. So far there is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.

在公元1世纪前，庞贝是环绕维苏威火山的诸城之一。由于得益于这个区域高产的农业，因此拥有大量的人口。许多与庞贝临近的城市，最著名的是赫基雷尼亚，同样在公元79年的火山爆发中遭到了灭顶之灾。巧合的是，武尔坎努斯节的后天正是这一天，这个节日是古罗马的火神节。

最近一个包括多学科的火山学和生物人类学的对火山爆发产物和遇难者的研究表明，维苏威以及邻近城镇的高热是人类死亡的主因，而不是原来所判断的粉尘窒息。这个研究的结果表明暴露在远离火山口10公里受到250摄氏度的高温能足够引起猝死，甚至人们躲到建筑物里。

人们和庞贝的建筑物被多达12层火山灰覆盖，达25米深。小普林尼在那不勒斯湾的米赛大，从他的角度为维苏威火山的爆发提供了第一手资料，这个版本是事件发生25年后写作完成的。

这次爆发事件被现代历史学家所记录，大家公认的是发生在公元79年8月24日，是基于普林尼一个版本的信件而得出的结论。然而对庞贝的考古挖掘表明庞贝是在火山爆发三个月后毁灭的。这支持了另外版本的信件，其推测出毁灭于11月23日的结论。鉴于埋葬在火山灰中的人们穿着夏季暖衣而不是夏季单衣，可以推测时间在8月。至今没有可以解释的理论说明为何存在如此显著的分歧。● A Hoe Dug a Big Baby—to Reproduce the Known to the World of Pompeii 一锄挖出个大宝贝——庞贝古城重现于世

As the years went by，the city gradually was out of world. Later，Sicily northward migration from Rome and Greece in the foot of the volcano have been found covered with dense forest. When people cut trees，they found bare black land，so we developed and grown grapes in it.

Spring of the year 1748，a Ming Jiaoan dug out the farmers in his own vineyard，he hold a hoe“clatter bang”sound，as if he dug into a rock，but how hard can not pull a hoe. He quickly shouted brother，sister-in taw with help. People dug the rocks and soil，and found a hoe through a metal cabinet，so it was busy dingging the cabinet out and opening it，there was actually a lot of molten，semi-molten gold，silver jewelry and ancient coins. News spread，this land of farmers，they suddenly remembered ancestral legends about the disappearance of Pompeii，so an influx of errand，and later also attracted a number of historians and archaeologists here archeology. Later，the experts recommended the Government of Italy，in 1876；scientists began to explore Pompeii and orderly. After over 1876，the ongoing work on behalf of experts and thousands of staff for their hard to maintain，and finally the Pompeii of the soul-stirring scene reproduced in the real world.关于维苏威火山爆发的画作

随着岁月的流逝，庞贝古城渐渐淡出了人们的视野。后来，从罗马和希腊、西西里北上的移民们发现火山山脚一带已经长满茂密的森林。当人们伐去树木之后，便裸露出黑油油的土地，于是大家就在这上面种植葡萄。庞贝城的阿波罗神庙

公元1748年春天，一名叫安得列的农民在挖自己的葡萄园，他高举锄头，“哐啷”一声，好像掘到了一块巨石，但怎么使劲也拔不出锄头。他连忙喊弟弟、弟媳帮忙。众人扒开泥土和石块，发现锄头穿透了一个金属柜子，于是大家七手八脚把柜子挖出来，打开一看，里面竟是一大堆熔化、半熔化的金银首饰及古钱币。消息传开，在这片土地上种植葡萄的农民突然想起祖辈相传的关于庞贝失踪的传说，于是盗宝者蜂拥而至，尔后也引来一批历史学家与考古专家来这里考古。后来意大利政府根据专家们建议，于1876年开始组织科学家进行有序发掘庞贝古城。经过百余年七八代专家的持续工作以及数千名工作人员的辛勤维护，终于将庞贝古城这一惊心动魄的一幕真实地再现于世人面前。● Brilliant and Outstanding Witness—the Historical Value of Ancient City 辉煌与杰出的见证——古城的历史价值The Temple of Apollo 阿波罗神庙

This is a typical roman style temple. Generally speaking，the Greeks built temples closer to the ground with space inside the temple for worshipers. The Roman temple was fashioned with space for worshipers outside in a courtyard. It was high off the ground and only the priests were allowed inside. In the rear of the temple of Apollo was a room that only the high priest could enter.

It was called the place“holy of holies”as same as the temple in Jerusalem. It was very suspicious that many ancient temples were patterned after the layout of the Jerusalem temple. King Solomon was very influential in his day.

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