作者：John Lord
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Volume 05The Middle Ages试读：
BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY.
BY JOHN LORD, LL.D.AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN EUROPE," ETC., ETC.
CONTENTS.
MOHAMMED.SARACENIC CONQUESTS.
Change of public opinion about MohammedAstonishing triumph of MohammedanismOld religious systems of ArabiaPolytheism succeeds the doctrines of the MagiansThe necessity of reformEarly life of MohammedCadijehMohammed's meditations and dreamsHis belief in a personal GodHe preaches his new doctrinesThe opposition and ridicule of his countrymenThe perseverance of Mohammed amid obstaclesHis flight to MedinaThe Koran and its doctrinesChange in Mohammed's mode of propagating his doctrinesPolygamy and a sensual paradiseWarlike means to convert ArabiaMohammed accommodates his doctrines to the habits of his countrymenEncourages martial fanaticismConquest of ArabiaPrivate life of Mohammed, after his successCarlyle's apology for MohammedThe conquest of Syria and EgyptConquest of Persia and IndiaDeductions in view of Saracenic conquestsNecessity of supernatural aid in the conversion of the worldAuthorities
CHARLEMAGNE.
REVIVAL OF WESTERN EMPIRE.
Ancestry and early life of CharlemagneThe Merovingian princesCondition of Europe on the accession of CharlemagneNecessity for such a hero to ariseHis perils and strugglesWars with the SaxonsThe difficulties of the Saxon conquestForced conversion of the SaxonsThe Norman piratesConquest of the AvaresUnsuccessful war with the SaracensThe Lombard warsCoronation of Charlemagne at HomeImperialism and its influencesThe dismemberment of Charlemagne's empireFoundation of FeudalismCharlemagne as a legislatorHis alliance with the clergyHis administrative abilitiesReasons why he patronized the clergyResults of Charlemagne's policyHallam's splendid eulogyAuthorities
HILDEBRAND.
THE PAPAL EMPIRE.
Wonderful government of the PapacyIts vitalityIts contradictionsIts fascinationsThe crimes of which it is accusedGeneral character of the popesGregory VII. the most famousHis personal historyHis autocratic ideasHis reign at the right timeSociety in Europe in the eleventh centuryCharacter of the clergyThe monks, and the need of reformCharacter of the popes before Gregory VII.Celibacy of the clergyAlliance of the Papacy and MonasticismOpposition to the reforms of HildebrandTerrible power of excommunicationSimony and its evilsSecularization of the clergySeparation of spiritual from temporal powerHenry IV. of GermanyApproaching strife between Henry and HildebrandTheir respective weaponsHenry summoned to RomeExcommunication of HenryHenry deserted and disarmedCompelled to yield to HildebrandHis great mistakeRenewed contestHumiliation of the PopeMoral effects of the contestSpeculations about the Papal powerAuthorities
SAINT BERNARD.
MONASTIC INSTITUTIONS.
Antiquity of Monastic lifeCauses which led to itOriental asceticismReligious contemplationInsoluble questionsSelf-expiationsBasil the founder of MonasticismHis interesting historyGregory NazianzenVows of the monksTheir antagonism to prevailing evilsVow of Poverty opposed to money-makingThat of Chastity a protest against prevailing impurityOrigin of celibacyIts subsequent corruptionNecessity of the vow of ObedienceBenedict and the Monastery of Monte CasinoHis rules generally adoptedLofty and useful life of the early monksGrowth and wealth of Monastic institutionsMagnificence of Mediaeval conventsPrivileges of the monksLuxury of the BenedictinesRelaxation of disciplineDegeneracy of the monksCompared with secular clergyBenefits which Monasticism conferredLearning of the monksTheir common lifeRevival of LearningRise of ScholasticismSaint BernardHis early piety and great attainmentsHis vast moral influenceHis reforms and laborsRise of Dominicans and FranciscansZeal of the mendicant friarsGeneral benefits of Monastic institutionsAuthorities
SAINT ANSELM.
MEDIAEVAL THEOLOGY.
Birth and early life of AnselmThe Abbey of BecScholarly life of AnselmVisits of Anselm to EnglandCompared with BecketLanfranc, Archbishop of CanterburyPrivileges of the ArchbishopUnwillingness of Anselm to be elevatedLanfranc succeeded by AnselmQuarrel between Anselm and William RufusDespotic character of WilliamDisputed claims of Popes Urban and ClementCouncil of RockinghamRoyal efforts to depose AnselmFirmness and heroism of AnselmDuplicity of the kingHis intrigues with the PopePretended reconciliation with AnselmAppeals to RomeInordinate claims of the PopeAllegiance of Anselm to the PopeAnselm at RomeDeath of William and Accession of Henry I.Royal encroachmentsHenry quarrels with AnselmResults of the quarrelAnselm as a theologianTheology of the Middle AgesMonks become philosophersGotschalk and predestinationJohn Scotus ErigenaRevived spirit of inquiryServices of Anselm to theologyHe brings philosophy to support theologyCombats NominalismHis philosophical deductionsHis devout Christian spiritAuthorities
THOMAS AQUINAS.
THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.
Peter AbélardGives a new impulse to philosophyRationalistic tendency of his teachingsThe hatreds he createdPeter LombardHis "Book of Sentences"Introduction of the writings of Aristotle into EuropeUniversity of ParisCharacter of the studentsTheir various studiesAristotle's logic usedThe method of the SchoolmenThe Dominicans and FranciscansInnocent III.Thomas AquinasHis early life and studiesAlbertus MagnusAquinas's first great workMade Doctor of TheologyHis "Summa Theologica"Its vast learningParallel between Aquinas and PlatoParallel between Plato and AristotleInfluence of ScholasticismWaste of intellectual lifeScholasticism attractive to the Middle AgesTo be admired like a cathedralAuthorities
THOMAS BECKET.
PRELATICAL POWER.
Becket a puzzle to historiansHis early historyHis gradual elevationFriendship with Henry II.Becket made ChancellorElevated to the See of CanterburyDignity of an archbishop of CanterburyLanfrancAnselmTheobaldBecket in contrastHis ascetic habits as priestHis high-church principlesUpholds the spiritual courtsDefends the privileges of his orderConflict with the kingConstitutions of ClarendonPersecution of BecketHe yields at first to the kingHis repentanceDefection of the bishopsBecket escapes to the ContinentSupported by Louis VII. of FranceInsincerity of the PopeBecket at Pontigny in exileHis indignant rebuke of the PopeWho excommunicates the Archbishop of YorkHenry obliged to compromiseHollow reconciliation with BecketReturn of Becket to CanterburyHis triumphal processionAnnoyance of HenryAssassination of BecketConsequences of the murderAuthorities
THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.
Anarchies of the Merovingian periodSociety on the dissolution of Charlemagne's empireAllodial tenureOrigin of FeudalismDependence and protection the principles of FeudalismPeasants and their mastersThe sentiment of loyaltyContentment of the peasantryEvils that cannot be redressedSubmission to them a necessityDivision of Charlemagne's empireLife of the noblesPleasures and habits of feudal baronsAristocratic character of FeudalismSlavery of the peopleIndirect blessings of FeudalismSlavery not an unmixed evilInfluence of chivalryDevotion to womanThe lady of the baronial castleReasons why women were worshippedDignity of the baronial homeThe Christian woman contrasted with the paganGlory and beauty of ChivalryAuthorities
THE CRUSADES.
The Crusades the great external event of the Middle AgesA semi-religious and semi-military movementWhat gives interest to wars?Wars the exponents of prevailing ideasThe overruling of all warsThe majesty of Providence seen in warOrigin of the CrusadesPilgrimages to JerusalemMiseries and insults of the pilgrimsIntense hatred of MohammedanismPeter of AmiensCouncil of ClermontThe First CrusadeIts miseries and mistakesThe Second CrusadeThe Third CrusadeThe Fourth, Children's, Fifth, and Sixth CrusadesThe Seventh CrusadeAll alike unsuccessful, and wasteful of life and energiesPeculiarities and immense mistakes of the CrusadersThe moral evils of the CrusadesUltimate results of the CrusadesBarrier made against Mohammedan conquestsPolitical necessity of the CrusadesTheir effect in weakening the Feudal systemEffect of the Crusades on the growth of citiesOn commerce and art and literatureThey scatter the germs of a new civilizationThey centralize powerThey ultimately elevate the European racesAuthorities
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
Roman architecture First form of a Christian churchThe change to the RomanesqueIts peculiaritiesIts connection with MonasticismGloomy aspect of the churches of the tenth and eleventh centuriesEffect of the Crusades on church architectureChurch architecture becomes cheerfulThe Gothic churches of France and GermanyThe English Mediaeval churchesGlories of the pointed archEffect of the Renaissance on architectureMongrel style of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuriesRevival of the pure gothicChurches should be adapted to their usesIncongruity of Protestantism with ritualistic architectureProtestantism demands a church for preachingGothic vaults unfavorable to oratoryAuthorities
JOHN WYCLIF.
DAWN OF THE REFORMATION.
Harmony of Protestant and Mediaeval creedsThe Reformation a moral movementThe evils of Papal institutionsThe evils of monastic lifeQuarrels and dissoluteness of monksBirth of WyclifHis scholastic attainments and honorsHis political influenceThe powers who have ruled the worldWyclif sent on a mission to BrugesProtection of John of GauntWyclif summoned to an ecclesiastical councilHis defenders and foesTriumph of WyclifHe openly denounces the PopeHis translation of the BibleOpposition to it by the higher clergyHostility of Roman Catholicism to the right of private judgmentHostility to the Bible in vernacular tonguesSpread of the Bible in EnglishWyclif as a doctrinal reformerHe attacks TransubstantiationDeserted by the Duke of LancasterBut dies peaceably in his parishWyclif contrasted with LutherHis great services to the churchReasons why he escaped martyrdomAuthorities
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME V.After the painting by Louis Guesnet. After the painting by W. Gentz.After the painting by A. Müller.After the painting by Adolph Maria Mucha.After the painting by Adolph Maria Mucha.From a photograph.After the painting by H. Lerolle.After the painting by A. Dawant.After the painting by Sir E. Blair Leighton.From a photograph.
BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY
MOHAMMED[1].A.D. 570-632.
SARACENIC CONQUESTS.
[1] Spelled also Mahomet, Mahommed; but I prefer Mohammed.
The most extraordinary man who arose after the fall of the Roman Empire was doubtless Mohammed; and his posthumous influence has been greater than that of any man since Christianity was declared, if we take into account the number of those who have received his doctrines. Even Christianity never had so rapid a spread. More than a sixth part of the human race are the professed followers of the Arabian prophet.
In regard to Mohammed himself, a great change has taken place in the opinions of critics within fifty years. It was the fashion half a century ago to speak of this man as a hypocrite, an impostor, even as Antichrist. Now he is generally regarded as a reformer; that is, as a man who introduced into Arabia a religion and a morality superior to what previously existed, and he is regarded as an impostor only so far as he was visionary. Few critics doubt his sincerity. He was no hypocrite, since he himself believed in his mission; and his mission was benevolent,--to turn his countrymen from a gross polytheism to the worship of one God. Although his religion cannot compare with Christianity in purity and loftiness, yet it enforced a higher morality than the old Arabian religions, and assimilated to Christianity in many important respects. The chief fault we have to find in Mohammed was, the propagation of his doctrines by the sword, and the use of wicked means to bring about a good end. The truths he declared have had an immense influence on Asiatic nations, and these have given vitality to his system, if we accept the position that truth alone has vitality.
One remarkable fact stands out for the world to ponder,--that, for more than fourteen hundred years, one hundred and eighty millions (more than a sixth part of the human race) have adopted and cherished the religion of Mohammed; that Christianity never had so astonishing a triumph; and that even the adherents of Christianity, in many countries, have not manifested the zeal of the Mohammedans in most of the countries where it has been acknowledged. Now these startling facts can be explained only on the ground that Mohammedanism has great vital religious and moral truths underlying its system which appeal to the consciousness of mankind, or else that these truths are so blended with dangerous errors which appeal to depraved passions and interests, that the religion spread in consequence of these errors rather than of the truth itself.
The question to be considered, then, is whether Mohammedanism spread in consequence of its truths or in consequence of its errors.
In order to appreciate the influence of the Arabian prophet, we are first led into the inquiry whether his religion was really an improvement on the old systems which previously prevailed in Arabia. If it was, he must be regarded as a benefactor and reformer, even if we admit the glaring evils of his system, when measured by the purer religion of the Cross. And it then simply becomes a question whether it is better to have a prevalent corrupted system of religion containing many important truths, or a system of downright paganism with few truths at all.
In examining the religious systems of Arabia in the age preceding the advent of the Prophet, it would seem that the most prominent of them were the old doctrines of the Magians and Sabaeans, blended with a gross idolatry and a senseless polytheism. Whatever may have been the faith of the ancient Sabaean sages, who noted the aspects of the stars, and supposed they were inhabited by angels placed there by Almighty power to supervise and govern the universe, yet history seems to record that this ancient faith was practically subverted, and that the stars, where were supposed to dwell deities to whom prayers were made, became themselves objects of worship, and even graven images were made in honor of them. Among the Arabs each tribe worshipped a particular star, and set up its particular idol, so that a degrading polytheism was the religion of the land. The object of greatest veneration was the celebrated Black Stone, at Mecca, fabled to have fallen from heaven at the same time with Adam. Over this stone was built the Kaabah, a small oblong stone building, around which has been since built the great mosque. It was ornamented with three hundred and sixty idols. The guardianship of this pagan temple was intrusted to the most ancient and honorable families of Mecca, and to it resorted innumerable pilgrims bringing precious offerings. It was like the shrine of Delphi, as a source of profit to its fortunate guardians.
Thus before Mohammed appeared polytheism was the prevalent religion of Arabia,--a degradation even from the ancient Sabaean faith. It is true there were also other religions. There were many Jews at Medina; and there was also a corrupted form of Christianity in many places, split up into hostile and wrangling sects, with but little of the spirit of the divine Founder, with innumerable errors and superstitions, so that in no part of the world was Christianity so feeble a light. But the great body of the people were pagans. A marked reform was imperatively needed to restore the belief in the unity of God and set up a higher standard of morality.
It is claimed that Mohammed brought such a reform. He was born in the year 570, of the family of Hashem and the tribe of Koreish, to whom was intrusted the keeping of the Black Stone. He therefore belonged to the highest Arabian aristocracy. Early left an orphan and in poverty, he was reared in the family of one of his uncles, under all the influences of idolatry. This uncle was a merchant, and the youth made long journeys with him to distant fairs, especially in Syria, where he probably became acquainted with the Holy Scriptures, especially with the Old Testament. In his twenty-fifth year he entered the service of Cadijeh, a very wealthy widow, who sent to the fairs and towns great caravans, which Mohammed accompanied in some humble capacity,--according to the tradition as camel-driver. But his personal beauty, which was remarkable, and probably also his intelligence and spirit, won the heart of this powerful mistress, and she became his wife.
He was now second to none in the capital of Arabia, and great thoughts began to fill his soul. His wife perceived his greatness, and, like Josephine and the wife of Disraeli, forwarded the fortunes of her husband, for he became rich as well as intellectual and noble, and thus had time and leisure to accomplish more easily his work. From twenty-five to forty he led chiefly a contemplative life, spending months together in a cave, absorbed in his grand reflections,--at intervals issuing from his retreat, visiting the marts of commerce, and gaining knowledge from learned men. It is seldom that very great men lead either a life of perpetual contemplation or of perpetual activity. Without occasional rest, and leisure to mature knowledge, no man can arm himself with the weapons of the gods. To be truly great, a man must blend a life of activity with a life of study,--like Moses, who matured the knowledge he had gained in Egypt amid the deserts of Midian.
With all great men some leading idea rules the ordinary life. The idea which took possession of the mind of Mohammed was the degrading polytheism of his countrymen, the multitude of their idols, the grossness of their worship, and the degrading morals which usually accompany a false theology. He set himself to work to produce a reform, but amid overwhelming obstacles. He talked with his uncles, and they laughed at him. They would not even admit the necessity of a reform. Only Cadijeh listened to him and encouraged him and believed in him. And Mohammed was ever grateful for this mark of confidence, and cherished the memory of his wife in his subsequent apostasy,--if it be true that he fell, like Solomon. Long afterwards, when she was dead, Ayésha, his young and favorite wife, thus addressed him: "Am I not better than Cadijeh? Do you not love me better than you did her? She was a widow, old and ugly." "No, by Allah!" replied the Prophet; "she believed in me when no one else did. In the whole world I had but one friend, and she was that friend." No woman ever retained the affections of a husband superior to herself, unless she had the spirit of Cadijeh,--unless she proved herself his friend, and believed in him. How miserable the life of Jane Carlyle would have been had she not been proud of her husband! One reason why there is frequent unhappiness in married life is because there is no mutual appreciation. How often have we seen a noble, lofty, earnest man fettered and chained by a frivolous woman who could not be made to see the dignity and importance of the labors which gave to her husband all his real power! Not so with the woman who assisted Mohammed. Without her sympathy and faith he probably would have failed. He told her, and her alone, his dreams, his ecstasies, his visions; how that God at different times had sent prophets and teachers to reveal new truths, by whom religion had been restored; how this one God, who created the heavens and the earth, had never left Himself without witnesses of His truth in the most degenerate times; how that the universal recognition of this sovereign Power and Providence was necessary to the salvation of society. He had learned much from the study of the Talmud and the Jewish Scriptures; he had reflected deeply in his isolated cave; he knew that there was but one supreme God, and that there could be no elevated morality without the sense of personal responsibility to Him; that without the fear of this one God there could be neither wisdom nor virtue.
Hence his soul burned to tell his countrymen his earnest belief in a supreme and personal God, to whom alone prayers should be made, and who alone could rescue by His almighty power. He pondered day
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