作者：圣才电子书
出版社：圣才电子书
格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT
George Yule《语言研究》（第4版）配套题库【课后练习＋章节题库（含名校考研真题）＋模拟试题】试读：
第一部分 课后练习
第1章 语言的起源
Study questions
1．Why is it difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must have been the original human language?
Key: Psammetichus left the infant to grow up among goats. This action caused the infant to imitate the sounds the goats were making. Psammetichus interpreted this sound as an actual word which was in reality just a “be”.
2．What is the basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory of language origin?
Key: The basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory is the natural sounds. Primitive words could have been imitations of natural sounds which men and women heard around them.
3．Why are interjections such as Ouch considered to be unlikely sources of human speech sounds?
Key: Interjections contain sounds that are not otherwise used in ordinary speech production. They are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is the opposite of ordinary talk, produced on exhaled breath.
4．Where is the pharynx and how did it become an important part of human sound production?
Key: The pharynx is above the vocal cords (or voice box) which acts a resonator for sound produced via larynx.
5．Why do you think that young deaf children who become fluent in sign language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis?
Key: If all children, including born deaf can acquire language at about the same time they must be born with special capacity to do so. The conclusion is that it must be innate is to say genetically determined.
6．With which of the four “sources” would you associate this quotation?
Chewing, licking and sucking are extremely widespread mammalian activities, which, in terms of casual observation, have obvious similarities with speech.
Key: a) The divine source: Language came from Saravasti wife of Brahma.
b) The natural sound: language came from imitations of heard sounds.
c) The physical adaptation source: language came from physical aspects distinct from other creatures.
d) The genetic source: language came from innateness hypothesis. Babies are sign language users or gestural. Human are born with a special capacity for language.
Tasks
A. What is the connection between the Heimlich maneuver and the development of human speech?
Key: The connection between the Heimlich maneuver and the development of human speech is that both movements try to push air out through the lungs. The former is a mechanical procedure to dislodge any obstruction in the air passage while the latter is a voluntary process of vocalization required for speech involving the vocal chords, the oral cavity, the tongue etc. for speech output.
B. What exactly happened at Babel and why is it used in explanations of language origins?
Key: The Bible says that: “... the whole earth was of one language and of one speech...” after the flood. Communication among men was good. Men could freely express their ideas, designs, plans and notions with one another... and invent ways to implement them.
The indication of scripture is that God has put man on a 6000 year time schedule. One reason is to let man learn that he is incapable of governing himself apart from the laws of God. Recent history shows how, with the language barrier less of a problem today than in centuries past, the communication between peoples, nations and cultures is “bringing the world back to the time when the whole earth was of one speech”.
C. What are the arguments for and against a teleological explanation of the origins of human language?
Key: We look at evidence that language is an innate ability of the human brain, an idea linked to Noam Chomsky. But many linguists and psychologists see language as one facet of cognition rather than as a separate ability. Since Chomsky and Gould have made a number of assertions that language (the communication system unique to human beings), could not have evolved through natural selection, and natural selection has long been the prevailing theory in evolutionary biology, the challenge presented by Pinker and Bloom was to develop a theory of language origin that was compatible with the mainstream theory of evolution, the theory of natural selection.
D. The idea that “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” was first proposed by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and is still frequently used in discussions of language origins. Can you find a simpler or less technical way to express this idea?
Key: Ontogeny is the course of development of an organism from fertilized egg to adult; phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. The phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" means that as an embryo of an advanced organism grows, it will pass through stages that look very much like the adult phase of less-advanced organisms.
E. In his analysis of the beginnings of human language, William Foley comes to the conclusion that “language as we understand it was born about 200,000 years ago” (1997: 73). This is substantially earlier than the dates (between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago) that other scholars have proposed. What kinds of evidence and arguments are typically presented in order to choose a particular date “when language was born”?
Key: There is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of the origin of language in the human species. Scholars wishing to study the origins of language must draw inferences from other kinds of evidence such as the fossil record or from archaeological evidence, from contemporary language diversity, from studies of language acquisition, and from comparisons between human language and systems of communication existing among other animals, particularly other primates. It is generally agreed that the origins of language are closely tied to the origins of modern human behavior, but there is little agreement about the implications and directionality of this connection.
F. What is the connection between the innateness hypotheses, as described in this chapter, and the idea of a Universal Grammar?
Key: Universal grammar is a topic that has been researched in linguistics since the mid-20th century. The basic, fundamental structure of all human languages is very similar, in spite of the obvious differences in vocabulary and sound. This basic structure is called Universal Grammar. The innateness hypothesis is the idea that this Universal Grammar is present in all healthy human minds as a result of biological inheritance (in other words, grammar is innate).
第2章 动物与人类语言
Study questions
1．Why is reflexivity considered to be a special property of human language?
Key: It is the distinguishing feature of human language which means: Using the language to think and talk about the language itself. Animals communicate with each other differently and they don’t reflect on the way they create their communicative messages or reviewing how they work. (Donkeys don’t bark about barking).
2．What kind of evidence is used to support the idea that language is culturally transmitted?
Key: One example of the cultural transmission of language is a child whither physical features inherited from its natural parents. For example Korean who, if adopted at birth by English speakers, will grow up speaking English not Korean.
3．What is the difference between a communication system with productivity and one with fixed reference?
Key: With productivity, the system can create new expressions, infinites；With fixed reference, there are a fixed number of signals in the system and each signal only relates to a particular object or occasion.
4．How did the Gardner’s try to show that Washoe was not simply repeating signs made by interacting humans?
Key: He did an experiment in which Washoe could identify words through objects in pictures. In 3 years Washoe could use more than 100 words and combine them.
5．If Sarah could use a gray plastic shape to convey the meaning of the word red, which property does her “language” seem to have?
Key: Arbitrariness (Because there is no relationship between the plastic with the meaning of red)
6．What was considered to be the key element in Kanzi’s language learning?
Key: Kanzi learned being exposed and observed a kind of language in use at a very early age (symbol system)
Tasks
A. In studies of communication involving animals and humans, there is sometimes a reference to “the Clever Hans phenomenon.” Who or what was Clever Hans, why was he/she/it famous and what exactly is the “phenomenon”?
Key: The term refers to a horse (Kluge Hans, referred to in the literature as "Clever Hans") who responded to questions requiring mathematical calculations by tapping his hoof. It’s a form of involuntary and unconscious cuing.
B. We recognized a distinction early in the chapter between communicative and informative signals. How would “body language” be characterized? Also, what kind of signaling is involved in “distance zones”? What about “eye contact” and “eyebrow flashes”?
Key: (1) Body language
① Advantage of body language:
Body language is an indirect way of communication. Thus, what is said with it can be taken back.
② Disadvantages:
a. It is extremely difficult and even dangerous to use because the background activity we want to use for communication can result in an actual action.
b. It is very difficult to interpret because often there are many thoughts involved.
c. Absence of body language is often wrongly interpreted as consent leading to disasters.
(2) The distance between two people conveys a desire for intimacy or lack of interest. It can also trigger control or fear, such as during police interrogations or when criminal activity is contemplated.
(3) Eye contact is obvious, powerful, and arousing. Direct eye contact shows self-confidence and can show that you're very interested, or that you mean what you are saying. It has been known to boost physiological interest.
(4) The eyebrow flash is a universally recognized unconscious social signal, wherein a person, wishing to approach another whom they recognize and are preparing for social contact, raises their eyebrows for approximately one-sixth of a second. People generally return an eyebrow flash, unless it was given by someone whom they do not know, or someone who looks away immediately after. The message must be interpreted in context. Psychologists and sociologists say that eyebrow raising can be a reaction to fear or surprise.
C. What is meant by “sound symbolism” and how does it relate to the property of arbitrariness?
Key: (1) Sound symbolism is the idea that the individual sounds within a word have meaning in and of themselves. Onomatopoeia is an example of this belief.
In a nutshell: Sound symbolism = the phonemes in a word mean something all by themselves.
(2) The property of arbitrariness is basically the opposite of sound symbolism. Arbitrariness posits that words come to represent something in the physical world with no real rhyme or reason behind how the word itself sounds.
In a nutshell: Arbitrariness = the phonemes in a word mean nothing.
D. What was the significance of the name given to the chimpanzee in the research conducted by the psychologist Herbert Terrace?
Key: Chomsky claimed that language is an innate ability and unique to the human species. Nim developed an ability to use language in much the same way as Washoe. Terrace argues that both Nim and Washoe only appeared to use signs as language. Thus, Chimpsky was given his name as a pun on Noam Chomsky.
E. We reviewed studies involving chimpanzees and bonobos learning to communicate with humans. Can only African apes accomplish this task? Are there any studies involving the Asian great ape, the orangutan, learning how to use a human communication system?
Key: Yes. For example, the orangutans are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes. Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates; they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations.
第3章 语 音
Study questions
1．What is the difference between acoustic phonetics and articulatory phonetics?
Key: (1) Acoustic Phonetics: a study of how speech sounds are transmitted: when sound travels through the air from the speaker's mouth to the hearer's ear it does so in the form of vibrations in the air;
(2) Articulatory Phonetics: describes how vowels and consonants are produced or ‘articulated’ in various parts of the mouth and throat.
2．Which of the following words normally end with voiceless (−V) sounds and which end with voiced sounds (+V) sounds?
(a) bang +V
(b) crash −V
(c) ding +V
(d) fizz +V
(e) rap –V
(f) smack –V
(g) splat –V
(h) thud +V
(i)wham +V
Key:
(a) +V
(b) –V
(c) +V
(d) +V
(e) –V
(f) –V
(g) –V
(h) +V
(i) +V
3．Try to pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and identify the place of articulation of each one (e.g. bilabial, alveolar, etc.).
(a) calf __________
(b) chin __________
(c) foot __________
(d) groin __________
(e) hand __________
(f) knee __________
(g) mouth __________
(h) pelvis __________
(i) shoulder __________
(j) stomach __________
(k) thigh __________
(l) toe __________
Key:
4．Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the following words (stop, fricative, etc.).
(a) cheery __________
(b) crazy __________
(c) dizzy __________
(d) funny __________
(e) jolly __________
(f) loony __________
(g) merry __________
(h) silly __________
(i) wimpy __________
Key:
5．Which written English words are usually pronounced as they are transcribed here?
Key:
6．Using symbols introduced in this chapter, write a basic phonetic transcription of the most common pronunciation of the following words.
(a) catch __________
(b) doubt __________
(c) gem __________
(d) measure__________
(e) noise __________
(f) phone __________
(g) shy __________
(h) these __________
(i) thought __________
(j) tough __________
(k) would __________
(l) wring __________
Key:
Tasks
B. Using a dictionary if necessary, try to decide how each of the following words is usually pronounced. Then, put the words in five lists as illustrations of each of the sounds [eɪ], [i], [f], [k] and [ʃ]. Some words will be in more than one list.
air, belief, critique, crockery, Danish, gauge, giraffe, headache, keys, meat, mission, nation, ocean, pear, people, philosopher, queen, receipt, scene, Sikh, sugar, tough, weight
Key:
C. We can create a definition for each consonant (e.g. [k]) by using the distinction between voiced and voiceless plus the terms for place (i.e. velar) and manner of articulation (i.e. fricative). So we say that [k] is a voiceless velar fricative. Write similar definitions for the initial sounds in the normal pronunciation of the following words.
fan, lunch, goal, jail, mist, shop, sun, tall, yellow, zoo
Are there any definitions in which the voiced/voiceless distinction is actually unnecessary and could be omitted?
Key: fan: voiceless labiodental fricative
lunch: (voiced) alveolar liquid
goal: voiced velar stop
jail: voiced palatal affricate
mist: (voiced) bilabial nasal
shop: voiceless palatal fricative
sun: voiceless alveolar fricative
tall: voiceless alveolar stop
yellow: (voiced) palatal glide
zoo: voiced alveolar fricative
In cases where there is no voiceless sound in contrast, the (voiced) feature, shown in brackets, could be omitted.
D. The terms “obstruent” and “sonorant” are sometimes used in descriptions of how consonants are pronounced. Among the types of consonants already described (affricates, fricatives, glides, liquids, nasals, stops), which are obstruents, which are sonorants, and why?
Key: (1) The obstruents are the stops, the fricatives, and the affricates;
(2) The sonorants are the vowels, liquids, glides, and nasals.
Obstruents are prototypically voiceless, though voiced obstruents are common. This contrasts with sonorants, which are rarely voiceless.
E. (I) How would you make a retroflex sound?
Key: Retroflex sounds are made with the tongue tip curled back. In some languages, retroflexes are so extreme that the tongue tip touches the hard palate or contact is made by the underside of the tongue tip.
(II) How are retroflex sounds identified in phonetic transcription?
Key: In the International Phonetic Alphabet, retroflex consonants are indicated with a hook in the bottom right, such as [ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɭ ɽ ɻ]
(III) With which varieties of English are retroflex sounds generally associated?
Key: Retroflex sounds need to be distinguished from other consonants made in the same parts of the mouth (postalveolar, alveolar, or palatal):
(1) The palato-alveolar sounds (e.g. [ʃ ʒ]), such as the sh, ch and zh occurring in English words like ship, chip and vision
(2) The alveolo-palatal sounds (e.g. [ɕ ʑ]), such as the q, j and x occurring in Mandarin Chinese
(3) The dorsal palatal consonants (e.g. [ç ʝ ɲ]), such as the ch [ç] in German ich or the ñ [ɲ] in Spanish año
(4) The grooved alveolar consonants (e.g. [s z]), such as the s and z occurring in English words like sip and zip
The first three types of sounds above have a convex tongue shape, which gives them an additional secondary articulation of palatalization. The last type has a groove running down the center line of the tongue, which gives it a strongly hissing quality. The retroflex sounds, however, have a flat or concave shape, with no associated palatalization, and no groove running down the tongue. The term "retroflex", in fact, literally means "bent back" (concave), although consonants with a flat tongue shape are commonly considered retroflex as well.
F. What is forensic phonetics?
Key: Forensic phonetics is the application of expertise in phonetics to assist in legal and law enforcement contexts, and the extension of research on phonetics to topics relevant to the legal system.
第4章 语言模式
Study questions
1．What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone?
Key: (1) Substituting one phoneme for another changes both pronunciation and meaning.
(2) Substituting one allophone for another only changes its pronunciation.
2．What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would normally be pronounced with one: kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top?
Key: An aspirated sound is one pronounced with a stronger puff of air. Words containing aspirated consonants in initial position are kill, pool and top.
3．Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?
ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, tap, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat, heel, sane, tale, vet
Key: ban–bun, fat–pat, fat–far, pit–pat, bell–bet, tape–tale, heat–heel, meal–heel, chain–sane, vote–goat
4．What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?
Key: The phonotactis of a language are the permitted arrangements of sounds that obey constraints on the sequence and ordering of phonemes in that language.
5．What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?
Key: (1) An open syllable ends with a vowel (as nucleus)
(2) A closed syllable ends with a consonant (as coda)
6．Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most likely to be affected by elision?
(i) government;(ii) postman;(iii) pumpkin;(iv) sandwich;(v) victory
Key: (i) /n/;(ii) /t/;(iii) /p/;(iv) /d/
Tasks
A. What are diacritics and which ones were used in this chapter to identify sounds?
Key: A diacritic is a mark placed above, through or below a letter, in order to indicate a sound different from that indicated by the letter without the diacritic.
D. Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals?
Key: The term suprasegmental refers to properties of an utterance that apply to groups of segments, rather than to individual segments. For example, stress is generally assigned to a syllable rather than to an individual sound. The three main suprasegmental features are stress, intonation, and tone.
(1) Stress: Emphasis, conveyed through differences in pitch, loudness, or duration that distinguishes a stress-bearing union (often a syllable) from neighboring units. In some languages (not English), stress is contrastive (i.e. stress alone can distinguish between two otherwise identical words). An English word with initial stress is escapade. An English word with final stress is understand.
(2) Intonation—The pattern of rising and falling pitch over an utterance. In English, rising pitch is often used to indicate a question (‘Mary likes John?’), while falling pitch is usually characteristic of a declarative sentence (‘Mary likes John.’).
(3) Tone—The use of pitch on a sequence of sounds to convey lexical information. In English, tone is not contrastive, but it many languages it is. For example, in Mandarin Chinese, the same syllable ma has four different meanings, depending on which tone is used.
E. The English words lesson and little are typically pronounced with syllabic consonants.
试读结束[说明：试读内容隐藏了图片]