西方文化经典选译(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)


发布时间:2020-05-19 13:18:38

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作者:董俊峰

出版社:浙江大学出版社

格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT

西方文化经典选译

西方文化经典选译试读:

第一章 古希腊

第一节 历史文化概述

Section One A General Survey of Ancient Greek History andCulture

古希腊本土地处巴尔干半岛南端,深入地中海之中,其国土包括克里特岛、罗德岛以及塞浦路斯岛等,面积十四万多平方公里,75%的国土为山脉,可耕地不到3%。现代希腊面积仅有十三万多平方公里,人口一千多万,主要为希腊族人。资源匮乏,尤其是水资源缺乏。国土狭小,但区域性地貌和小气候则是异常多变,各地区差异较大,造成交通不便、交流困难。然而,古希腊民族竟然在这样一个极端不利的环境中创造出灿烂的古代文明,在各个领域创造了辉煌的业绩,成为西方文化的源头和人类文明的重要发祥地之一。希腊民族的不同部落自公元前3000年开始向巴尔干半岛南部迁徙,一般认为,多个不同部落从巴尔干半岛北部向半岛南部迁徙,他们中有亚该亚人、爱奥尼亚人、多利安人等。这些具有共同语言和文化的海伦人(Hellene),也就是希腊民族,他们逐渐征服和同化了当地的土著居民,成为了当地的主体民族。早在古希腊文明兴起之前,在爱琴海沿岸一带就孕育了灿烂的克里特文明和迈锡尼文明。随着这些移民的到来,尤其是讲希腊语的多利安人的侵入,迈锡尼文明陨落了。这些远古文明的消失可能还有别的原因,如其社会内部的原因等,但至今未有定论。由此可见,希腊民族是从欧洲其他地方迁徙而来,不是希腊本土的土著居民。随着这些移民的到来,原来的文明衰落了,消失了,成为了千古之谜。这些后来的移民——希腊人创造了自己无与伦比的文明。

一、古希腊各重要历史时期

古希腊史从古代迈锡尼文明毁灭到罗马人对希腊的征服,大约900年的时间,可分为四个主要时期。第一时期一般称作“黑暗时期”(公元前1100年—前800年),即迈锡尼文明毁灭;第二时期“古风时期”(公元前800—前490年),其中包括所谓荷马时代;第三时期“古典时期”(公元前490—前323年);第四时期“希腊化时期”(公元前323—前146年)。

随着灿烂的迈锡尼文明的毁灭,古希腊社会进入一个黑暗时期,关于这一时期,人们知之甚少。从黑暗时期起,古希腊社会逐渐恢复和兴盛。古风时期是古希腊从黑暗时期走向古典时期的过渡时期,或者说是古典时期的序幕;一般认为,这一时期正是希腊城邦兴起和确立时期,到古典时期城邦达到了兴旺发达的程度。“城邦”(Polis)字面意义是指“堡垒或卫城”,与“乡郊”相对;卫城、市区、乡郊统称为“波利”。古希腊的城邦是早期国家的一种形态,它是由作为中心的城市、作为主体的公民和周边乡村组成的小国寡民的社会共同体。“一个城邦不只是在同一地区的居留团体,也不只是便利交换并防止互相损害的群体经济和军事团体。这些确实是城邦所由存在的必要条件,然而所有这些条件还不足以构成一个城邦。城邦是若干生活良好的家庭或部族为了追求自足而且至善的生活,才行结合而构成的。”(亚里士多德)依据亚里士多德的观点,城邦蕴含着重要的精神要素,即宗教的理念、神的允诺等。城邦是从这些神庙前围绕祭坛和坛火所举行的公共活动中被确立的,其创建的目的是宗教性的。古希腊人的整个生活充满着神性,希腊人是与神共生的民族,只有深刻理解了神在古希腊人生活中的重要作用,才能理解希腊城邦的含义。希腊文的“公民”(Polites)一词就是从城邦(Polis)衍化而来,指“属于城邦的人”。在古希腊,公民身份只是少数人的一种特权,这个概念排除了侨民和奴隶,甚至连老人和小孩也不是完全意义上的公民。

城邦政体有三种类型,即僭主政治、民主制和贵族制。僭主(Tyranos)一般指那些未经合法程序、以不正当手段取得政权、自立为城邦的统治者,僭主制是古希腊社会政治、经济及各种矛盾共同作用的结果。在城邦兴起、新政体形成的过程中,出现一些暂时混乱,客观上为僭主的产生提供了机遇;僭主也利用这些机会,采取一些积极措施,给社会以正面影响。但是随着社会经济进一步发展和政治环境的改变,人们对于僭主的专权愈来愈不满,于是另外两种政体取而代之,即贵族政体和民主政体。

雅典(Athens)是典型的民主政体,它东、北、西三面环山,南面爱琴海。雅典最初也实行君主政体,继而寡头政治,最后走向民主政体。雅典民主制经历了一个发展的过程:首先,提秀斯(Theseus)改革实行部落联盟,建立议事会和行政机构,将社会划分为贵族、农民和手工业者,规定贵族担任官职,农民和手工业者可在公民大会中有一席之地,这是进入雅典国家的重要一步。其次,基伦(Gelon)暴动深深触动了贵族,公元前621年颁布了《德拉古法典》,这是第一部成文法,具有划时代意义。其三,梭伦(Solon)改革是雅典民主道路上决定性的一步,主要是减轻了民众的痛苦、限制了贵族特权,为工商业奴隶主掌握政权准备了条件,它标志着雅典古典城邦制度的确立,初步创立雅典民主政治。克里斯提尼(Cleisthenes)改革实行陶片放逐法,行使公民权,成为了民主政治的一个重要工具,由此确立和巩固了雅典的民主政治。伯利克里(Pericles)贤明、智慧,尊重人民的自由,同时还能控制社会。他执政三十余年,雅典民主政治达到极盛,史称“伯利克里时代”。曾经被理想化了的希腊民主其实仍是富人的民主,“雅典在名义上是民主政治,但是事实上权利是在第一公民手里。”(修昔底德)与今天人们理解的民主有很大差异。古代希腊不仅创造了雅典的民主制,还产生了另外一种政治模式,即斯巴达所代表的贵族政体。

斯巴达(Sparta)位于伯罗奔尼撒半岛,三面环山,南面靠海,但无港口。斯巴达一词意为“散居之地”或“播种地”,其地适宜耕种。斯巴达是由南下入侵的多利亚人组成,他们征服了原有居民,于公元9世纪末建立了自己的国家,并不断征服周边地区,形成了与雅典不同的政治体制。首先,斯巴达的制度据传是古代的立法者来库古(Lycurgus)在阿波罗神庙的女祭司佩提亚指引下根据神谕制订出来的。斯巴达政治制度完整严密,很像是从一开始就经过精心规划,但这些制度又深深植根于多利亚人的传统之中。其制度包括双王、贵族议事会、公民大会和监察官在内的以贵族议事会为核心的贵族政治制度。其次,斯巴达奉行严格的等级制。第一等级是斯巴达人,世袭占有全国土地,不得买卖,他们属于奴隶主阶级;第二等级是皮里阿西人,主要由自由的小生产者组成,他们没有公民权,从事农工商业,不得参与政治活动,但要纳税和服兵役;第三等级是希洛人(Helots),属于斯巴达的国有奴隶,他们是被征服的希洛城的居民,所以奴隶都被称作希洛人。其三,斯巴达式教育崇尚勇敢、无畏、吃苦耐劳、视死如归等品质。斯巴达国家是在军事征服中形成的,整个国家就是一个大兵营;斯巴达的男童必须体格健壮,并接受近似残酷的体格训练,经历常人无法忍受的生活,他们方能成为英勇无比的战士。在这样的制度下,斯巴达确实拥有一支希腊世界训练有素、纪律严明的铁军。公元六世纪,诞生了两个大联盟,即以斯巴达为首的伯罗奔尼撒同盟和以雅典为首的提洛同盟,成员包括了古希腊世界的所有城邦。斯巴达与雅典的社会习俗基本相同,如实行父系制度,崇拜多神教,以农立国,奴隶是主要劳动力,崇法尚武,但是斯巴达仍有许多鲜明的特点。他们生活极端简朴,甚至是苦行僧的生活,他们一直遵照来库古制订的“大公约”(The Great Rhetra)行事,包括公民大会的作用、如何召开、君王及元老院(gerousia)的功能与确立等。斯巴达被认为是混合君主、寡头和民主三位一体的制度,柏拉图的理想国就主张共性和集权统治,这与斯巴达的制度是一致的。而雅典则形成了它自己的制度,社会相对稳定、和谐与富庶,是仅次于斯巴达的第二强盛城邦。公元前590年,梭伦立法试图解决农业与商业结合的问题、贫富分化问题,其核心是“依法治国”或“法律与秩序”问题(eunomia),原则是雅典城邦必须由全体公民共同治理,梭伦与来库古是欧洲历史上两位具有里程碑意义的伟大人物。

在古希腊的古典时期,曾经发生了两次改写历史的战争,一次是希波战争(公元前499年至前449年),由西亚强国——波斯帝国发动入侵希腊的战争,波斯帝国统治着小亚细亚、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦直至埃及的广袤地区,强盛一时,另一方则是由雅典和斯巴达为核心的希腊城邦组成的反侵略阵营;波斯帝国分别于公元前490和公元前480—前479年对希腊进行了两次入侵,爆发了三次著名战役,即马拉松战役、温泉关战役和萨拉米斯湾海战,均以波斯人的惨败而告结束。到公元前449年,两国签署《卡利亚斯和约》,战争正式结束。波希战争是古代欧洲史上的重大事件。希腊获胜不仅使希腊人民的民族认同感和凝聚力得到空前增强,而且使西方世界的历史中心由地中海地区向两河流域扩展,为后来的西方文明奠定了坚实的基础,形成了东西方并立共存的态势。战后,雅典与斯巴达两大阵营的矛盾激化,终于爆发了“伯罗奔尼撒战争”(公元前431年至前404年),这次在古希腊土地上发生的以雅典为首的海上同盟与以斯巴达为首的伯罗奔尼撒同盟之间的战争长达27年。雅典是海上强国,斯巴达则是陆地劲旅,最后以斯巴达人的胜利结束战争,但是希腊各城邦间的固有矛盾并未解决,反而加剧了。如果说希波战争是希腊各城邦走向繁荣与辉煌的重要转折点,那么伯罗奔尼撒战争则使希腊世界盛极而衰,标志着古典时期行将结束。

位于欧洲东南部、希腊北部的马其顿王国,迅速崛起并征服了希腊,继而征服了波斯帝国直至中亚和印度,极大地改变了世界。公元前359年,菲利普二世在马其顿登基成为国王,他以超群的勇武与智慧令马其顿迅速崛起,在不到10年的时间里不仅摆脱了马其顿的生存困境,而且开始征服希腊。公元前336年,菲利普二世被自己的近卫队成员刺死,他的指定继承人亚历山大年仅20。在24年的统治中,菲利普二世将国家从濒临瓦解的边缘挽救回来,并使之统一强大。经过一番周折,在父王的高级将领安提帕特的力挺下,亚历山大坐稳了宝座。这位年轻的国王席不暇暖便开始了他雄心勃勃的征服计划。在巩固了北部边境之后,他转向南方,铲除了希腊境内的不安定因素,于公元前334年春率领大军跨过达达尼亚海峡,进入亚洲,实施他征服波斯、中亚和印度的计划。完成征服之后,亚历山大在返回途中,于公元前323年6月病逝于巴比伦,年仅33岁。亚历山大的征服是古代史上一件划时代事件,极大地改变了马其顿人、希腊人已知的世界,把地中海、西亚、中亚与印度连成一片。在征服的过程中,他设立总督,传播希腊文化,建立了多座城市,以他自己名字命名的埃及城市亚历山大利亚闻名全球,那儿也是他的陵墓所在地。随着马其顿王国的崛起,古希腊文明进入一个新时期,即所谓“希腊化时期”。希腊化时期开始于亚历山大大帝逝世的公元前323年,结束于罗马人征服希腊本土的公元前146年。在这一时期,希腊文明深刻影响了东地中海沿岸、西亚和中亚的各个国家,它是希腊古典时期与罗马文化之间的过渡时期,文化总体呈下降与衰落,但它的影响却在扩展。随着马其顿帝国的征服,一系列希腊化的殖民点和城镇建立起来了,希腊的生活方式和文化在其中被推崇和模仿,希腊文化被传播到了远方。

总而言之,亚历山大的大军所到之处,希腊文化便开始传播,虽然这一征服和统治并未持续很长时间,甚至在内忧外患中希腊本土的生存都受到了威胁,但是古希腊的文明成果已经传播到了西亚、北非、中亚和南亚次大陆,这是古代世界具有重大影响的事件。

二、古希腊文化的伟大创造

荷马的两部史诗《伊利亚特》(Iliad)和《奥德赛》(Odyssey),最早是希腊先民们代代口口相传,后通过文字记录下来,大约在公元前8世纪到公元7世纪之间形成书面文本。史诗中反映的历史事件特洛伊战争大概发生在公元前13世纪,《伊利亚特》并没有记录战争的全过程,而是集中战争第十年40天内发生的事情,而《奥德赛》则是抒写希腊战将奥德修斯归国途中的冒险经历。从这些英雄史诗中可以看出,首领的头衔是世袭的,但他们必须有实力,能够应付诸多挑战,具有良好的战略和战术素养、出色的演说能力以及英雄所拥有的一切品质,因此首领应该是一个军事兼政治的全能人物。那个时代对于男性品质的要求基本上都与战争有关,如勇气、战斗技巧等,具有竞争精神和尚武精神。荷马史诗不仅是公认的文学楷模,“一种规范和高不可及的范本”(马克思语),还是一种历史的创作活动,蕴含了希腊民族的精神、思想、观念、习俗等,更是对整个希腊民族精神塑造发挥不可替代作用的重要文献,是西方文化的开山之作。

在希腊古典时期诞生了三位伟大的悲剧诗人:埃斯库罗斯(Aeschylus,525 BC—456BC)、索福克勒斯(Sophocles,496BC—406BC)和欧里庇得斯(Euripides,485BC—406BC)。“悲剧之父”埃斯库罗斯确立了悲剧的体裁,开创了悲剧的传统,代表作有《普罗米修斯》(Prometheus);索福克勒斯素有“戏剧艺术的荷马”之称,创作出了最完美的悲剧,代表作有《俄狄浦斯王》(Oedipus Tyrannus);欧里庇得斯是“舞台上的哲学家”,写出了最为深刻的悲剧,代表作有《美狄亚》(Medea)。这一时期还产生了杰出的喜剧诗人阿里斯托芬(Aristophanes,446BC—385BC),他被称为“喜剧之父”,他的喜剧同样具有难以超越的价值,代表作有《吕西斯忒拉忒》(Lysistrata)。

古希腊早期,科学与哲学都与爱奥尼亚的米利都学派(Miletus)紧密联系在一起,代表人物“科学之父”泰勒斯(Thales,624BC—546BC)是第一个以自然解释自然的人,他说:“万物是由水组成的。”阿那克西曼德(Anaximander,610BC—546BC)更倾向于抽象的思维方式,他说:“万物的始基是无限。”赫拉克利特(Heraclitus,544BC—484BC)提出著名的“万物皆流”的永恒运动思想,他说:“一个人不能两次踏入同一条河流。”而差不多同时代的巴门尼德(Parmenides,540 BC—470BC)则只承认“存在”,不承认“变化”,凡存在的东西不生不灭。德谟克利特(Democritus,460BC—370BC)提出“原子论”的思想,他说:“只有原子和虚空是实在的。”数学家毕达哥拉斯(Pythagoras,580BC—500BC)认为数学与神秘主义密切结合,“他们认为数的本原即是万物的本原”,“一切其他事物都表明,其整个的本性乃是对数的模仿”。(亚里士多德)智者派(sophists)其实是教书先生,他们有教授演说的艺术和论辩的技艺,一般包括政治学、辩论术和修辞学,最著名的普罗塔哥拉(Protagoras,481BC—411BC)有一句名言:“人是万物的尺度,是存在的事物存在的尺度,也是不存在的事物不存在的尺度。”

西方哲学史上最伟大的哲学家苏格拉底(Socrates,470BC—399BC),也像耶稣基督、释迦牟尼和孔子一样,不以文字传世,善于言说,他之后的所有哲学流派都从他那里直接或间接产生。苏格拉底以自己的整个生命诠释和实践他的哲学思想,尤其是他悲壮的死使他成为了哲学的殉道者,而他的思想及人生则都是从他弟子及后世哲人的描述中重构出来的。柏拉图(Plato,BC427—347BC),苏格拉底最著名的弟子,继承苏格拉底的基本思想,并创立了自己完整的哲学体系,他的二重世界划分是其哲学的出发点和基本原理,深刻影响了西方哲学史;他的国家学说(即国家的三种基本功能)具有永恒意义;他创办学园(academy),传授知识,授徒讲学达40年之久,堪与孔子媲美,代表著作有《理想国》(Republic)、《法律篇》(Laws)等。亚里士多德(Aristotle,384BC—322BC)进入柏拉图的学园,历时二十余载,直到柏拉图去世,他成为了柏拉图最优秀的学生,甚至与老师产生了分歧,说出了“吾爱吾师,吾更爱真理”的箴言。他开始系统梳理前人的所有成果,创立自己独特的理论体系,建立了形而上学,即他所称的第一哲学;在国家学说上,他指出,国家的宗旨不只限于维护法律和秩序,抵御外敌和保护生命,国家更高的职责在于使公民在一种完善的共同生活中过得幸福。他几乎掌握了他那个时代所有的知识,成为最博学的人,是许多学科的开山鼻祖,代表作有《政治学》(Politics)、《形而上学》(Metaphysics)等。苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德是三位独创性天才,他们开启了西方哲学的第一个繁荣时代。

希腊化时期(公元前323—前146年)斯多葛派(Stoicism)和伊壁鸠鲁(Epicureanism)两个哲学流派在雅典成长壮大,称为显学。芝诺是斯多葛派的创始人,他认为地球是宇宙的中心,宙斯则是推动宇宙前进的主动力。他要求信奉者追求内心平静,强调秩序的重要性,生活是理性的、可以规划的。而伊壁鸠鲁认为,宇宙中的物质的多样性完全是由于原子在下降过程中,时有改变方向,从不同的角度相互碰撞而形成。他的哲学中几乎没有神的位置,人死之后,原先组成人体的原子也随之消散了。他界定的幸福是“ataraxia”,即既无过度快乐又无过度痛苦的无忧无虑的状态,他劝人们避免进入可能带来痛苦的各种活动,如金钱、爱情等。他们的主张虽不同,但一个共同的特点是要人们在纷扰的世界中寻求宁静。这一时期还有另外两个派别,即犬儒学派和怀疑主义。犬儒学派的主要代表人物是狄奥根尼(Diogenes of Sinope),他自称世界公民,倡导自然状态,认为人和动物一样,应该遵循本能。怀疑主义是与皮朗(Pyrrhon of Elis)联系起来的,后者认为认识是人类不可企及的目标,追求真理是无望的,追求权力也一样。这一时期,学术的中心逐渐由雅典转移至其他城市,甚至到了新征服的地方如叙利亚、埃及等。

在历史学与文学领域,古希腊人也取得了惊人的成就,产生了希罗多德(Herodotus,484BC—425BC)的《历史》(The Histories)和修昔底德(Thucydides,460BC—395BC)的《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》(History of the Peloponnesian War)两部经典史学著作。他们分别开创了史学的两种不同风格与模式:“史学之父”希罗多德视野开阔,文笔华美,采用不断“插话”的讲述方式叙述历史,形成“叙述流”的风格;而修昔底德则更加关注具体事件,研究和分析事件的原因等,避免叙述的枝蔓倾向。

在建筑与雕塑艺术方面,古希腊人亦有非凡的建树,其标志性建筑是城邦的神庙。神庙是神所居住的地方,也就是安放神像的地方。城邦时代最著名的神庙有:公元前6世纪,以弗所的第一个阿尔忒弥斯神庙(Temple of Artemis)和萨摩斯的第三个赫拉神庙(Temple of Hera);公元前5世纪,雅典的帕特侬神庙(Temple of Parthenon)和奥林波斯的宙斯神庙(Temple of Zeus);公元前4世纪,德尔菲的阿波罗神庙(Temple of Apollo)等。雅典卫城上的神庙是最具代表性的神庙,位于雅典城中心偏南的一座石灰岩小山上,小山冈是神庙的天然底座,上面有帕特侬神庙、厄瑞克提翁神庙(Temple of Erechtheon)和胜利女神庙(Temple of Athena Nike)。古希腊雕塑艺术的杰出代表有:古典时期雕塑家米隆(Myron)的《掷铁饼者》(Discobolos),波吕克利特(Polyclitus)的《执矛者》(Doryphoros),菲迪亚斯(Pheidias)的《戎装的雅典娜》(The Athena Promachos);古典时期后期斯科巴斯(Scopas)的《垂死的尼俄柏》(Dying Niobid),普拉克西特列斯(Praxiteles)的《尼多斯的阿佛洛狄忒》(The A phrodite of Knidos),利西普斯(Lysippus)的《刮汗污的运动员》(A poxyomenos or the“Scraper”)和《休息的赫拉克勒斯》(Hercules Farnese);希腊化时期的《米洛的维纳斯》(Venus de Milo)、《拉奥孔》(Laoco迸n and His Sons)和《小孩与鹅》(Child Playing with a Goose)等。

古希腊文明是西方文化的源头,从古希腊族人南下,征服并定居到巴尔干半岛的南端之上,他们便开始了无与伦比的文化创造活动。古希腊人对于自然宇宙有一种孩童般的好奇,他们欲知自然和宇宙万物的来历、缘起与奥妙,于是众多的希腊哲人仰望星空,思索答案。他们不仅发挥想象创造了色彩斑斓的神话世界,还脚踏实地创立了诸多学科和哲学流派,在科学与哲学的许多方面达到后人敬仰的高度,开启了西方文明的辉煌时代。

第二节 文化典籍节选

Section Two Selected Translations of Masterpieces1.The Apologyby Plato

Do not interrupt me,Athenians.Remember the request which I made to you,and listen to my words.I think that it will do you good to hear them.I have something more to say to you,at which perhaps you will cry out;but do not do that.Be sure that if you kill me,a man such as I say I am,you will harm yourselves more than you will harm me.Meletus(another enemy prosecutor)and Anytus can do me no harm;that is impossible,for I do not think that God will allow a good man to be harmed by a bad one.They may indeed kill me,or drive me into exile,or deprive me of my civil rights;and perhaps Meletus and others think these things great evils.But I do not think so:I think that to do as he is doing,and to try to kill a man unjustly,is a much greater evil.And now,Athenians,I am not going to argue for my own sake at all,as you might think,but for yours,that you may not sin against the God and reject his gift to you,by condemning me.If you put me to death,you will hardly find another man to fill my place.The God sent me to attack the city,if I may use a ludicrous simile,just as if it were a great and noble horse,which was rather sluggish from its size and needed a gadfly to rouse it,and I think I am the gadfly that the God has set upon the city:for I never cease settling on you as it was at every point,and rousing,and exhorting,and reproaching each man of you all day long.You will hardly find any one else,my friends,to fill my place;and,if you take my advice,you will spare my life.You are indignant,as drowsy persons are when they are awakened,and,of course,if you are persuaded by Anytus,you could easily kill me with a single blow,and then sleep undisturbedly for the rest of your lives...

Perhaps someone will say:“Why cannot you withdraw from Athens,Socrates,and hold your peace?”It is the most difficult thing in the world to make you understand why I cannot do that.If I say I cannot hold my peace because that would be to disobey the God,you will think that I am not in earnest and will not believe me.And if I tell you that no greater good can happen to a man than to discuss human excellence every day and the other matters about which you have heard me arguing and examining myself and others,and that an unexamined life is not worth living then you will believe me still less.But that is so,my friends,though it is not easy to persuade you...

...Perhaps,my friends,you think that I have been convicted because I am wanting in the arguments by which I could have persuaded you to acquit me,if I had thought it right to do or to say anything to escape punishment.It is not so. I have been convicted because I was wanting,not in arguments,but in prudence and shamelessness─because I would not plead before you as you would have liked to hear me plead,or appeal to you with weeping and wailing,or say and do many other things which I maintain are unworthy of me,but which you have been accustomed to from other men.But when I was defending myself,I thought that I ought not to do anything unworthy of a free man because of the danger which I ran,and I have not changed my mind now,I would very much rather defend myself as I did,and die,than as you would have had me do,and live...

And now I wish to prophesy to you,Athenians,who have condemned me. For I am going to die,and that is the time when men have most prophetic power.And I prophesy to you who have sentenced me to death that a far more severe punishments than you have inflicted on me will surely overtake you as soon as I am dead.You have done this thing,thinking that you will be relieved from having to give an account of your lives.But I say that the result will be very different.There will be more men who will call you to account,whom I have held back,though you did not recognize it.And they will be harsher toward you than I have been,for they will be younger,and you will be more indignant with them.For if you think that you will restrain men from reproaching you for not living as you should,by putting them to death,you are very much mistaken.That way of escape is neither possible nor honorable.It is much more honorable and much easier not to suppress others,but to make yourselves as good as you can.This is my parting prophecy to you who have condemned me.

苏格拉底之辩(选译)

柏拉图 著

不要打断我,雅典公民们。记住我对你们的请求,听我说。我想,听我说这些话会对你们有好处的。我还有更多要说的话,也许听后你们会咆哮的,请别那样。我敢肯定如果你们杀死我,就像我所说的我这样一个人,你们伤害自己的程度将大大超过伤害我自己,梅拉图斯(另一迫害者)与安尼图斯并不能伤害我。他们伤害我是不可能的,我认为上帝绝不会允许一个坏人伤害一个好人。他们确实可以杀死我,或放逐我,或剥夺我的公民权。也许梅拉图斯和其他人认为我做的都是些大恶事,但我不这样看,我认为,像他这样做,试图不公正地杀死一个人才是更大的恶事。雅典同胞们,我将不会为自己辩护,正像你们所想象的,但是我正是为了你们才这样说的。你们不要冒犯上帝,拒绝他赐给你们的礼物,判决我就是拒绝天赐。如处决了我,你们很难再找到另一个人来填补空白。上帝派遣我来攻击雅典,如果我可以使用一个粗俗的明喻的话,正如一匹高大威严的骏马,它由于体形硕大,行动迟缓,需要一只牛虻激发它;我想我就是上帝派遣下来的、激发雅典城的那只牛虻,因为在任何一个时间点上我从未停止使你们心绪宁静下来,从未停止激发、规劝和谴责你们每一个人。我的朋友,你们找不到另一个人来替代我这个人了;听从我的忠告,不要伤害我的性命。你们感到愤怒,正如一个刚刚从梦中被唤醒的、睡眼惺忪的人一样;当然,你们被安尼图斯说服了,便可轻而易举杀死我,然后可以无人打扰安睡终生??

也许有人会说,“苏格拉底,你为什么不离开雅典、缄口不说呢?”确实要使你们明白我为什么不那样做是世界上最困难的事情。如果我说我不能缄口,因为那样会违背上帝的旨意,你们定会认为我不真诚,不会相信我。如果我告诉你们世上没有比每天探讨人的美德以及你们听到的我所争辩的与审视自己和别人的事情更好的了;我说未经审视的生活是不值得过的,你们就更不会相信我了。我的确是那样看的,我的朋友,尽管不容易说服你们??

??我的朋友,也许你认为我有罪,因为我用来说服你的辩词有欠缺,如果我认为应该做些什么或替自己辩解以免于惩罚的话。全然不是那么一回事。我有罪,不是因为辩词有欠缺,而是自己行为不谨慎、不够无耻——因为我没有祈求你,正如你期望听到我的祈求、哀求,甚至痛哭流涕,或者说一些、做一些我所不齿的事,而你们已习惯于从别人那里听到祈求之声。当我为自己辩护时,我想我不应该由于自己遇上危险就做一个自由人所不齿之事,我至今不改初衷。我宁愿我行我素去死,而不愿摧眉折腰去活??

雅典同胞们,我现在希望向你们这些判决我的人预言。我即将死去,这正是一个人最有预见能力的时刻。我向你们这些判决我的人预告,我死之后,一个远比你们强加在我头上的惩罚更加严厉的惩罚必将降临到你们身上。你们做了,认为自己已经摆脱了必须替自己辩解的境地,但我认为结果远非如此。将会有更多的人要求你们做出解释,我并未请求他们这样做,尽管你们并没有看出。他们对你们会比我要严厉得多,他们更年轻,你们将对他们感到更愤怒。如果你们期望用处死人的办法使人们不敢谴责你们,以此强迫他们按你们的意志生活,你们就大错特错了。那种摆脱的办法既做不到,也不光彩。一个更光彩和更容易做到的办法则是不去强迫别人,尽量使自己变得更好一些。这就是我——一个将被处死之人对你们的临别预言。2.Phaedo: The Death of Socratesby Plato(The narrator,Phaedo,who was present at the execution of Socrates,gives his friend Echecrates an account of Socrates'last hours.Many of his friends were with him on that day,among them Crito and two Theban philosophers,Simmias and Cebes.These two engaged him in an argument about the immortality of the soul,which Socrates succeeded in proving to their satisfaction.He concluded with an account of the next world,describing the place of reward for the virtuous and of punishment for the wicked.The opening words of the following selection are his conclusion of the argument.)

A man of sense ought not to say,nor would I be very confident,that the description which I have given of the soul and her mansions is exactly true.But I do say that,inasmuch as the soul is shown to be immortal,he may venture to think,not improperly or unworthily,that something of the kind is true.The venture is a glorious one,and he ought to comfort himself with words like these,which is the reason why I lengthen out the tale.Wherefore,I say,let a man be of good cheer about his soul,who having cast away the pleasures and ornaments of the body as alien to him and working harm rather than good,has sought after the pleasures of knowledge;and has arrayed the soul,not in some foreign attire,but in her own proper jewels,temperance,and justice,and courage,and nobility,and truth─in these adorned she is ready to go on her journey to the world below,when her hour comes.Your,Simmias and Cebes,and all other men,will depart at some time or other.Me already,as a tragic poet would say,the voice of fate calls.Soon I must drink the poison;and I think that I had better repair to the bath first,in order that the women may not have the trouble of washing my body after I am dead.

When he had done speaking,Crito said:And have you any commands for us,Socrates─anything to say about your children,or any other matter in which we can serve you?

Nothing particular,Crito,he replied:only,as I have always told you,take care of yourselves;that is a service which you may be ever rendering to me and mine and to all of us,whether you promise to do so or not.But if you have no thought for yourselves,and care not to walk according to the rule which I have prescribed for you,not now for the first time,however much you may profess or promise at the moment,it will be of no avail.

We will do our best,said Crito:And in what way shall we bury you?

In any way that you like;but you must get hold of me,and take care that I do not run away from you.Then he turned to us,and added with a smile:─I cannot make Crito believe that I am the same Socrates who have been talking and conducting the argument;he fancies that I am the other Socrates whom he will soon see,a dead body─and he asks,How shall he bury me?And though I have spoken many words in the endeavor to show that when I have drunk the poison I shall leave you and go to the joys of the blessed,─these words of mine,with which I was comforting you and myself,have had,as I perceive,no effect upon Crito.And therefore I want you to be surety for me to him now,as at the trial he was surety to the judges for me:but let the promise be of another sort;for he was surety for me to the judges that I would remain,and you must be my surety to him that I shall not remain,but go away and depart;and then he will suffer less at my death,and not be grieved when he sees my body being burned or buried.I would not have him sorrow at my hard lot,or say at the burial,Thus we lay out Socrates,or,Thus we follow him to the grave or bury him;for false words are not only evil in themselves,but they inflict the soul with evil.Be of good cheer then,my dear Crito,and say that you are burying my body only,and do with that whatever is usual,and what you think best.

When he had spoken these words,he arose and went into a chamber to bathe;Crito followed him and told us to wait.So we remained behind,talking and thinking of the subject of discourse,and also of the greatness of our sorrow;he was like a father of whom we were being bereaved,and we were about to pass the rest of our lives as orphans.When he had taken the bath his children were brought to him(he had two young sons and an elder one);and the women of his family also came,and he talked to them and gave them a few directions in the presence of Crito;then he dismissed them and returned to us.

Now the hour of sunset was near,for a good deal of time had passed while he was within.When he came out,he sat down with us again after his bath,but not much was said.Soon the jailor,who was the servant of the Eleven,entered and stood by him,saying:─To you,Socrates,whom I know to be the noblest and gentlest and best of all who ever came to this place,I will not impute the angry feeling of other men,who rage and swear at me,when,in obedience to the authorities,I bid them drink the poison─indeed,I am sure that you will not be angry with me;for others,as you are aware,and not I,are to blame.And so fare you well,and try to bear lightly what must needs be─you know my errand. Then bursting into tears he turned away and went out.

Socrates looked at him and said:I return your good wishes,and will do as you bid.Then turning to us,he said,How charming the man is:since I have been in prison he has always been coming to see me,and at times he would talk to me,and was as good to me as could be,and now see how generously he sorrows on my account.We must do as he says,Crito;and therefore let the cup be brought,if the poison is prepared:if not,let the attendant prepare some.

Yet,said Crito,the sun is still upon the hill‐tops,and I know that many a one has taken the draught late,and after the announcement has been made to him,he has eaten and drunk,and enjoyed the society of his beloved:do not hurry─there is time enough.

Socrates said:Yes,Crito,and they of whom you speak are right in so acting,for they think that they will be gainers by the delay;but I am right in not following their example,for I do not think that I should gain anything by drinking the poison a little later;I should only be ridiculous in my own eyes for sparing and saving a life which is already forfeit.Please then to do as I say,and not to refuse me.

Crito made a sign to the servant,who was standing by;and he went out,and having been absent for some time,returned with the jailer carrying the cup of poison.Socrates said:You,my good friend,who are experienced in these matters,shall give me directions how I am to proceed.The man answered:You have only to walk about until your legs are heavy,and then to lie down,and the poison will act.At the same time he handed the cup to Socrates,who in the easiest and gentlest manner,without the least fear or change of color or feature,looking at the man with all his eyes,Echecrates,as his manner was,took the cup and said:What do you say about making a libation out of this cup to any god?May I or not?The man answered:We only prepare,Socrates,just so much as we deem enough.I understand,he said:but I may and must ask the gods to prosper my journey from this to the other world─even so─and so be it according to my prayer.Then raising the cup to his lips,quite readily and cheerfully he drank off the poison.And hitherto most of us had been able to control our sorrow;but now when we saw him drinking,and saw too that he had finished the draught,we could no longer forbear,and in spite of myself my own tears were flowing fast;so that I covered my face and wept,not for him,but at the thought of my own calamity in having to part from such a friend.Nor was I the first;for Crito,when he found himself unable to restrain his tears,had got up,and I followed;and at that moment,Apollodorus,who had been weeping all the time,broke out in a loud and passionate cry which made cowards of us all.Socrates alone retained his calmness:What is this strange outcry?he said.I sent away the women mainly in order that they might not misbehave in this way,for I have been told that a man should die in peace.Be quiet then,and have patience.When we heard his words we were ashamed,and refrained our tears;and he walked about until,as he said,his legs began to fail,and then he lay on his back,according to directions,and the man who gave him the poison now and then looked at his feet and legs;and after a while he pressed his foot hard,and asked him if he could feel;and he said,No;and then his leg,and so upwards and upwards,and showed us that he was cold and stiff.And he felt them himself,and said:When the poison reached the heart,that will be the end.He was beginning to grow cold about the groin,when he uncovered his face,for he had covered himself up,and said─they were his last words─he said:Crito,I owe a cock to Asclepius;will you remember to pay the debt?The debt shall be paid,said Crito;is there anything else?There was no answer to this question;but in a minute or two a movement was heard,and the attendants uncovered him;his eyes were set,and Crito closed his eyes and mouth.

Such was the end,Echecrates,of our friend;concerning whom I may truly say,that of all men of his time whom I have known,he was the wisest and justest and best.

《斐多篇》(选译)苏格拉底之死

柏拉图 著(执行苏格拉底死刑时,叙述者斐多在场,他向朋友艾契格拉迪讲述了苏格拉底最后时刻的情形。那一天,他的许多朋友都与苏格拉底在一起,其中有克里多,还有两位底比斯的哲学家,希密阿斯和塞伯斯。这两人请求苏格拉底论证了灵魂不朽的理念,苏格拉底的成功论证使他们心满意足。他最后讲述了来世,描述了有德者受到奖励的地方和邪恶者遭受惩罚的地方。下面选文开篇就是他论证的最后部分。)

理智的人不该这样说,我也不那么确信,我关于灵魂及其寓所的描述与真实情况一点不差。但我敢说由于灵魂被证明是不朽的,他可以大胆地设想,而不是不恰当和不合理地假设,此类事情是真实的。这一冒险是光荣的,他应该这样安慰自己,这也是我为什么把故事讲得这么冗长的原因。因此,我说,让他对自己的灵魂感到欢乐起来吧,他早已将肉体方面的快乐和修饰像外在之物一样抛弃掉了,这些肉体上的快乐多半是带来伤害而非好处,然后追求知识的欢乐,给灵魂佩戴自己合适的宝物,赋予节制、正义、勇敢、高贵和真理之美德,而不是异邦的服饰——如此装饰之后,灵魂随时准备在它的时刻到来时踏上通向下界的旅途。你们,希密阿斯和塞伯斯,还有所有的人,都会在某个时刻辞别的。我的时刻已经来临,正如一位悲剧诗人所说,命运已经在召唤了。我不久就要喝下毒药。我想还是最好先洗个澡,免得死后还得麻烦让女人们给我洗。

他说完这些话,克里多问:苏格拉底,你还有什么吩咐我们做的吗?关于你的孩子们,或者其他我们可以帮的事情吗?

没有什么特别的事,克里多,他这样答道:只要照顾好你们自己,我过去总是这样告诫你们。照顾好自己就是你们能为我、我的家人以及我们所有的人做的了,不管你承诺与否。但是,你们如不为自己考虑,按照我给你们规定的原则行事,不是现在这第一次,不管你们此刻如何表白和承诺都无济于事。

我们会尽最大努力的,克里多说:我们该怎样安葬你呢?

你们喜欢怎样安葬就怎样安葬,但你们得把我抓牢了,小心别让我跑了。然后,他向我们转过来,笑了:我没法让克里多相信我还是那个滔滔不绝与人辩论的苏格拉底。他会觉得他很快就会看到我是另一个苏格拉底,一具尸体——他问我,他该怎样安葬我?尽管我说了许多话,想表明喝下毒药后,我会离开你们到极乐世界去——这些我用来安慰你们和我的话,我觉得,没有对克里多产生作用。因此,我想让你为我给他做个担保,正如在审判我时他为我给法官们做了担保一样:但这承诺完全不一样。他为我给法官们做担保时,我在场,可你为我给他做担保时,我就不在场了,你们走吧,告别了。他看到我的尸体已经火化埋葬,他就不会那么难受和痛苦了。我不愿意他为我的悲惨命运悲伤,或在葬礼上说,我们这样为苏格拉底举行了殡葬仪式,把他送到墓地埋葬了。因为虚假的言辞本身不仅是邪恶的,而且还用这邪恶折磨人的灵魂。亲爱的克里多,欢乐起来吧!答应我,就你一个人去埋葬我吧,按照常规做吧,按照你觉得最好的方式做吧!

说完这些话,他起身进屋去洗澡了。克里多跟他进去了,告诉我们等着。我们留在外面,谈论和思考说过的那些话题,以及我们巨大的悲痛。他就像一位父亲,我们正在失去的父亲,我们将像孤儿一样度过余生。他洗完澡后,孩子们都带来了(他有两个小儿子和一个年长些的儿子),还有他家里的女眷们都来了,当着克里多的面,他与家里人说了会儿话,交代了些事;然后把他们打发走了,又回到我们这边。

此刻,太阳即将落下去,他在里面待了很长时间。洗完澡出来坐下,没说多少话。狱官派来的狱卒很快就来了,站在他旁边,说:——对你,苏格拉底,我知道你是到这儿来的人里最高尚、最有教养和最好的人,我不会把别人愤怒的情感撒在你身上,当我执行上峰指示,要他们喝下毒药时,他们愤怒地咒骂我——我敢肯定,你不会怪罪我,你知道,是别人要我这样做,不是我要做。一路走好,不要太把这些放心上——你知道这是我的差事。他泪流满面,转身出去了。

苏格拉底看着他说:承蒙你的好意,我会按照你的要求做的。他转身对我们说,他这人多好啊!我进监狱以来,他总来看我,不时地与我交谈,尽量对我好,现在又这样慷慨地为我抛洒眼泪。克里多,我们得按照他说的做,毒药准备好了,就端上来吧,还没有准备好,就让准备一些吧。

克里多说,夕阳仍高悬在山巅。我知道,许多人喝毒药都要拖延一些时间;宣告发出了,他吃点东西,喝点酒,与自己亲人再待一会儿。别着急——还有时间。

苏格拉底说,是的,克里多,你说的这些人拖延有道理,他们觉得拖延对自己有好处。但我不学他们的样子,也有道理,我认为,拖延喝毒药时间也没有什么意思。试图赦免和拯救一个已经失去的生命,在我看来有些滑稽可笑。请按我说的做,别拒绝我。

克里多向旁边站立的仆人示意,他就出去了。过了一会儿,他领着狱卒进来,狱卒端着毒药杯。苏格拉底说:我的朋友,这些事你懂,告诉我该怎么做。他回答道:你只要随意走动,直到腿感到有些沉重,然后躺下,毒药就起作用了。他一边说一边把杯子递给苏格拉底,苏格拉底从容不迫、毫无惧色,瞪大眼睛看着那狱卒。艾契格拉底,就像他一贯的神情。他拿起杯子问:你觉得洒几滴向神表示敬意怎么样?我可否这样做?狱卒说,苏格拉底,我们只准备恰当的量。他说,我理解,可我必须请神指引我走入下界——即然是这样——那也就照我的祈祷吧!杯子举到嘴边,他欣然从容喝下毒药。到目前为止,我们大多数人都还能压制着悲痛,可现在看到他喝毒药,一饮而尽,我们都再也无法克制悲痛的情感,我也极力克制,但泪水如注。我捂着脸,呜咽着,不是为了他,而是想到不得不失去这样一位好朋友后我要遭受的苦难就止不住流泪。我也不是第一个,因克里多不能抑制自己的眼泪站了起来,我紧跟其后。此时,一直在呜咽的阿波罗多鲁斯终于放声痛哭起来,这使我们个个显得胆怯如鼠。只有苏格拉底一人保持着平静:哭哭啼啼干什么?他说。我把女眷们打发走,就怕她们这样哭哭啼啼,我知道人应该死得平静。安静一些,耐心等待。听他这样说,我们都感到羞愧难当,抑制住泪水。他照吩咐四处走动着,直到他说腿有些沉重,然后他仰天躺下。给他送毒药的狱卒不时地看看他的脚和腿;过一会儿,重重地捏一下他的腿,问他能否感觉得到,他回答说,不能;然后,从腿往上捏,他向我们说明,他身体变冷,僵硬了。他自己能感觉到,他说:毒药走到心脏,一切都结束了。他腹部周围都开始变冷,他先前自己把脸盖住,揭开他的脸后说——这是他最后说的话——克里多,我欠医药之神阿斯克勒庇俄斯一只公鸡,你记着还了这个债,好吧?我一定会还这个债的,克里多说,还有别的吗?他没有回答这个问题,过了一两分钟,听到一点动静。狱卒揭开他,他的眼睛不动了,克里多合上了他的眼睛和嘴。

艾契格拉底,我们这位朋友就这样走了。关于他,我可以如实地说,在我所了解的他那个时代的人中,他是最智慧的、最公正的、最好的人。3.Politicsby Aristotle

In all states there are three sections of the community─the very well‐off,the very badly‐off,and those in between.Seeing therefore that it is agreed that moderation and a middle position are best,it is clear that in the matter of possessions to own a middling amount is best of all.This condition is most obedient to reason,and following reason is just what is difficult both for the exceedingly rich,handsome,strong,and well‐born,and for the opposite,the extremely poor,the weak,and the downtrodden.The former commit deeds of violence on a large scale;the latter are delinquent and wicked in petty ways. The misdeeds of the one class are due to hubris,the misdeeds of the other to rascality.Add the fact that it is among the members of the middle sections that you find least reluctance to hold office as well as least eagerness to do so;and both these are detrimental to states.There are other drawbacks about the two extremes.Those who have a super‐abundance of all that makes for success,strength,riches,friends,and so forth,neither wish to hold office nor understand the work;and this is ingrained in them from childhood on;even at school they are so full of their superiority that they have never learned to do what they are told.Those on the other hand who are greatly deficient in these qualities are too subservient.So they can not command and can only obey in a servile regime,while the others cannot obey in any regime and can command only in a master‐slave relationship.The result is a state not of free men but of slaves and masters,the one full of envy,the other of contempt.Nothing could be farther removed from friendship or from the whole idea of a shared partnership in a state.Sharing is a token of friendship;one does not share even a journey with people one does not like.The state aims to consist as far as possible of those who are like and equal,a condition found chiefly among the middle section.And so the best government is certain to be found in this kind of city,whose composition is,we maintain,a natural one.The middle class is also the steadiest element,the least eager for change.They neither covet,like the poor,the possessions of others,nor do others covet theirs,as the poor covet those of the rich.So they live less risky lives,not scheming and not being schemed against.Phocylides's(sixth century B.C.poet)wish was therefore justified when he wrote“Those in the middle have many advantages;that is where I wish to be in society.”

It is clear then both that the political partnership which operates through the middle class is best,and also that those cities have every chance of being well‐governed in which the middle class is large,stronger if possible than the other two together,or at any rate stronger than one of them.For the addition of its weight to either side will turn the balance and prevent the extravagances of the opposition.For this reason it is a happy state of affairs when those who take part in the life of the state have a moderate but adequate amount of property;for where one set of people possesses a great deal and the other nothing,the result is either extreme democracy or unmixed oligarchy or a tyranny due to the excesses of the other two.Tyranny often emerges from an over‐enthusiastic democracy or from an oligarchy,but much more rarely from middle‐class constitutions or from those very near to them.

The superiority of the middle type of constitution is clear also from the fact that it alone is free from fighting among factions.Where the middle element is large,there least of all arise faction and counter‐faction among citizens.And for the same reason the larger states are free from danger of splitting;they are strong in the middle.In small states it is easy for the whole body of citizens to become divided into two,leaving no middle at all,and they are nearly all either rich or poor.Democracies too are safer than oligarchies in this respect and longer lasting thanks to their middle class,which is always more numerous and more politically important in democracies than in oligarchies.For when the unpropertied class without the support of a middle class gets on top by weight of numbers,things go badly and they soon come to grief.

《政治学》(选译)

亚里士多德 著

在所有国家,人的群体可分为三类,即特别富裕的人、特别贫穷的人,以及介于二者之间的人。既然人们都公认中等或中间位置最好,显而易见在占有财产方面,拥有中等量的财产是最好不过了。这种境况的人很遵从理性,而遵从理性对其他两类人都是相当困难的,对于特别富裕的人、英俊的人、强者和出身高贵者与对于特别贫穷的人、弱者和下层的人都是同样困难的。前者会犯弥天大罪,而后者则邪恶小过常犯。前者犯罪是由天性傲慢所致,而后者则是无赖行径使然。还得补充一点,即中间阶级成员对于担任公职,最少勉强,也最少渴望;而勉强与渴望对国家都不利。处于两极者还有一些其他缺点。那些拥有过量资源的人们,资源成就了他们的成功,为他们增添了力量,创造了财富,赢得了朋友,等等;他们既不愿意也不理解从政的工作;从孩提时起,他们就被灌输了这样的观念,甚至在学校,他们就充满着优越感,从没有学会做别人告诉他们应该做的;而那些缺少这些条件的人则太谦卑、顺从。因此,后者只能在一个奴隶般的政权里顺从别人,不能命令别人,而前者则在任何政权里都不会听从别人,只会以主仆关系发号施令。其结果不是一个自由的国度,而是由奴隶主和奴隶组成的国家。一个阶级心怀妒忌,另一个则满含轻蔑。在一个国家里,没有比这更远离友情,更远离同胞之情。分享是友谊的象征,人们甚至不愿与自己不喜欢的人同行。国家旨在尽量包含相同的平等的人们,这种状况多见于社会的中间部分。我们认为,在这样的城邦里一定会产生最好的政府,因为它的构成是浑然一体的。中间阶级是最稳定的因素,最不希望改变。他们既不像穷人那样嫉妒别人的财产,也不像穷人妒忌富人的财产那样受到别人嫉妒。他们的生活并不是那么充满风险,他们不需要耍阴谋手段,也不会成为别人阴谋手段的牺牲品。福德里德斯(公元前六世纪诗人)的渴望是蛮有道理的,他说,“在中间的人有许多有利之处;那里是我渴望在社会上进入的地方。”

显而易见,通过中产阶级运行的政治联盟是最好的;中产阶级大,如果可能的话,强于其他两个阶层相加,或者强于他们中的任何一个,这样的城市很可能是管理有序的。因为把这重量加到任何一边都会失衡,避免对立面的过分行为。由于这个原因,从政者有适量的但足够的财产,就会是一件幸事,因为一些人富可敌国,另一些人一贫如洗,其结果不是极端民主制,就是纯粹的寡头制,由两者过度行为造成的暴政。暴政往往产生于过度的民主制或寡头制,但很少是由中产阶级组成的体制或近似政体导致的。

中产阶级组成的政体的优越性显而易见,主要是其内部没有宗派之争。在中间成分占多数的地方,公民之间很少会形成不同的对立派别。由于相同的原因,大国则无分裂之虞,尤赖其中间强大。小国则易于分为两极,而无中间地带,人们则非富即贫。就这方面而言,民主制较寡头制更安全,也更持久,由于他们的中产阶级,他们人数更多,在民主制中比在寡头制中更重要。在缺乏中产阶层支持的情况下,无产阶层以人数众多取得优势后,必然使国家的情形变糟,很快失败。4.The Funeral Oration of Periclesby Thucydides

Let me say that our system of government does not copy the institutions of our neighbors.It is more the case of our being a model to others,than of our imitating anyone else.Our constitution is called democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people.When it is a question of settling private disputes,everyone is equal before the law;when it is a question of putting one person before another in positions of public responsibility,what counts is not membership of a particular class,but the actual ability which the man possesses.No one,so long as he has it in him to be of service to the state, is kept in political obscurity because of poverty.And,just as our political life is free and open,so is our day‐to‐day life in our relations with each other.We do not get into a state with our next‐door neighbors if he enjoys himself in his own way,nor do we give him the kind of black looks which,though they do no real harm,still do hurt people's feelings.We are free and tolerant in our private lives;but in public affairs we keep to the law.This is because it commands our deep respect.

We give our obedience to those whom we put in positions of authority,and we obey the laws themselves,especially those which are for the protection of the oppressed,and those unwritten laws which it is an acknowledged shame to break.

And here is another point.When our work is over,we are in a position to enjoy all kinds of recreation for our spirits.There are various kinds of contests(in poetry,drama,music,and athletics)and sacrifices regularly throughout the year;in our own homes we find a beauty and a good taste which delight us every day and which drive away our cares.Then the greatness of our city brings it about that all the good things from all over the world flow in to us,so that to us it seems just as natural to enjoy foreign goods as our own local products.

Then there is a great difference between us and our opponents in our attitude towards military security.Here are some examples:Our city is open to the world,and we have no periodical deportations in order to prevent people observing or finding out secrets which might be of military advantage to the enemy.This is because we rely,not on secret weapons,but on our own real courage and loyalty.There is a difference,too,in our educational systems.The Spartans,from their earliest boyhood,are submitted to the most laborious training in courage;we pass our lives without all these restrictions,and yet are just as ready to face the same dangers as they are.Here is a proof of this:when the Spartans invade our land,they do not come by themselves,but bring all their allies with them;whereas we,when we launch an attack abroad,do the job by ourselves,and,though fighting on foreign soil,do not often fail to defeat opponents who are fighting for their own hearths and homes.As a matter of fact none of our enemies has ever been confronted with our total strength,because we have to divide our attention between our navy and the many missions on which our troops are sent on land.Yet,if our enemies engage a detachment of our forces and defeat it,they give themselves credit for having thrown back our entire army;or,if they lose,they claim that they were beaten by us in full strength.There are certain advantages,I think,in our way of meeting danger voluntarily with an easy mind,instead of with a laborious training,with natural rather than with state‐induced courage.We do not have to spend our time practising to meet sufferings which are still in the future;and when they are actually upon us we show ourselves just as brave as these others who are always in strict training.This is one point in which,I think our city deserves to be admired.There are also others:

Our love of what is beautiful does not lead to extravagance;our love of the things of the mind does not make us soft.We regard wealth as something to be properly used,rather than as something to boast about.As for poverty,no one need be ashamed to admit it:the real shame is in not taking practical measures to escape from it.Here each individual is interested not only in his own affairs but in the affairs of the state as well:even those who are mostly occupied with their own business are extremely well‐informed on general politics—this is a peculiarity of ours:we do not say that a man who takes no interest in politics is a man who minds his own business;we say that he has no business here at all. We Athenians,in person,take our decisions on policy or submit them to proper discussions:for we do not think that there is an incompatibility between words and deeds;the worst thing is to rush into action before the consequences have been properly debated.And this is another point where we differ from other people.We are capable at the same time of taking risks and of estimating them beforehand.Others are brave out of ignorance;and,when they stop to think,they begin to fear.But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and of what is terrible,and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.

Again,in questions of general good feeling there is a great contrast between us and most other people.We make friends by doing good to others,not by receiving good from them.This makes our friendship all the more reliable,since we want to keep alive the gratitude of those who are in our debt by showing continued goodwill to them:whereas the feelings of one who owes us something lack the same enthusiasm,since he knows that,when he repays our kindness,it will be more like paying back a debt than giving something spontaneously.We are unique in this.When we do kindness to others,we do not do them out of any calculations of profit or loss:we do them without afterthought,relying on our free liberality.Taking everything together then,I declare that our city is an education to Greece,and I declare that in my opinion each single one of our citizens,in all the manifold aspects of life,is able to show himself the rightful lord and owner of his own person,and do this,moreover,with exceptional grace and exceptional versatility.And to show that this is no empty boasting for the present occasion,but real tangible fact,you have only to consider the power which our city possesses and which has been won by those very qualities which I have mentioned.Athens,alone of the states we know,comes to her testing time in a greatness that surpasses what was imagined of her. In her case,and in her case alone,no invading enemy is ashamed at being defeated,and no subject can complain of being governed by people unfit for their responsibilities.Mighty indeed are the marks and monuments of our empire which we have left.Future ages will wonder at us,as the present age wonders at us now.

伯里克利的葬礼演说(选译)

修昔底德 著

让我这样说吧,我们的政府制度不是模仿邻国的。与其说我们模仿别人,不如说我们是他人的榜样。我们的政体可称之为民主政体,因为权力不是在少数人手里,而是属于全体人民。在解决私人之间争执的问题上,则人人在法律面前是平等的,而在选择个人担任公职的问题上,决定因素不在于他是某个特定的阶层成员,而在于他所具有的实际能力。任何人只要他具备为国效力的能力,决不因贫困使其在政治上默默无闻。正如我们的政治生活是自由与开放的,人们彼此之间的日常关系亦是如此。邻居们只要喜欢自己的生活方式,我们就不会干涉他们,也不会对他们的生活方式投之以不友善的目光,这种充满敌意的眼神虽不会对他们造成实际伤害,但仍使他们感到不快。在私人生活里,我们是自由的,宽容的,但在公共事务上则要遵守法律,因为法律值得我们表示深深的敬意。

我们顺从那些我们推举到权威地位的人们,并遵守法律,特别是那些保护受压迫者的法律,以及那些不成文的条文,人们公认违背他们是可耻的。

还有另外一点,我们工作完成后,要尽情享受各种娱乐以安顿精神。一年到头,有各种各样(诗歌、戏剧、音乐和体育)定期的比赛和祭祀活动。在自己家里,我们也能找到美好的与有品位的东西,令我们感到每天精神都是愉悦的,生活的烦事都被驱散殆尽。那么,这个城市了不起之处在于它让世界各国好的商品都流进来,我们很自然地享受本地产品,也享受外国商品。

关于军事安全,我们与对手看法完全不同。这里有一些例子:我们的城市向世界开放,从不定期驱逐异族人,以防止他们探听或收集秘密情报,这些秘密情报可能对敌国军事有利。我们不靠秘密武器,而是凭借自己真正的勇气和忠诚。在教育制度上也有巨大的不同。斯巴达男孩从幼年起就进行最严格的勇气训练,而我们则无需这些,但是在面对同样的危险时我们与他们是一样严阵以待。这里有一个证据:斯巴达人侵略我们的土地,从不是自己单独来,而是与他们的盟邦一起来;而我们在敌国土地上发起攻击时,从来都是凭借我们自己,尽管在外国土地上作战,面对保家卫国的对手,我们仍能击败对手。事实上,我们所有敌人从未面对过我们的全部军事力量,因为我们的海军和陆军不得不分派到各个战场上执行不同使命。然而,当我们的敌人面对一个已经分遣了的军队,赢了它,他们则声称战败了我们的全部军队,借此给自己以殊荣;或者说,他们失败了,他们则声称是被我们全部的军事实力打败的。我认为,我们在自愿应对危险的方法上有某些优势,我们凭借冷静镇定和人的先天勇气,而不是靠严格训练和国家激发出的勇气。我们并没有花费时间练习应对远在未来的苦难;当这些苦难降临到我们的头上,我们表现出的勇武与其他那些经常严格训练的士兵不相上下。就这一点,我想,我们的城市就配得上人们的仰慕,当然,还有其他优点。

我们爱美,但不耽于奢华;我们崇尚精神,但并未使我们软化。我们认为财富是应该恰当利用之物,而非炫耀之物。至于贫困,人们无需羞于承认:真正的羞愧在于不采取切实可行的措施以摆脱贫困。在这里,每个人都不仅感兴趣自己的事情,而且也关心国家大事:即使那些特别关注自己事情的人也对于国家政治了然于胸——这是我们的特性:我们不说一个对政治不感兴趣的人是个关注自己事务的人,而是说他没有关注的事务。我们雅典人都亲自作出自己对政策的决定或者适当讨论它:我们不认为言语与行为之间有什么不一致之处;最糟糕的事情莫过于鲁莽从事,而对事情的后果并未恰当地争论过。这也是我们与其他国家不同的一点。我们能够既敢于冒险,又事先对其进行评估,而其他民族的勇敢则出于无知;他们停下来开始思考时,恐惧便袭上心头。一个被认为是真正勇敢的人,他最懂得生命中甜蜜和可怕的含义,而又义无反顾去迎接即将来临的挑战。

再者,我们与许多其他民族的人在友情方面存在巨大差异。我们交朋友是为朋友做好事,而不是要朋友为我们做好事。这就使得我们的友谊更加牢靠,因我们是不断向朋友示好以保持他们对我们的感激之情:而欠我们情谊的人则缺乏相同的热情,因他知道他报答我们的善意时,就更像是还债,而不是自发地付出某种东西。在这一方面,我们很独特。我们给别人做善事时,决不盘算得失:我们不假思索地做好事,凭借自己的自由慷慨。把这一切综合考虑,我宣称我们的城市对整个希腊都具有启迪意义;在我看来,每一个公民在生活的诸多方面都能展现自己作为自己真正主人,而且以极其优雅和无与伦比的多才多艺表现他们自己。要证实这一切不是在今天这个场合的空洞夸耀,而是实实在在的事实,你只要想一想这个城市所拥有的力量,这个凭借我谈到的这些美德所赢得的力量就可以了。在我们所知的国家中,只有雅典以如此超乎人们想象的恢弘气魄迎接对她的考验。在她的这一情景下,也只有在她的情景下,任何入侵的敌人都不会因败在雅典人手下而感到羞愧,也没有任何臣民可以抱怨他们被置于不称职官员的统治之下。我们留下的这个帝国的印记与功绩真是宏伟壮丽。未来的人们将对我们的业绩惊叹不已,正如此刻人们感受到的震撼一般。

第二章 古罗马与意大利

第一节 历史文化概述

Section One A General Survey of Ancient Roman and Italian History and Culture

从远古印欧语族的一支南迁至南意大利,建造了一个简陋的罗马城开始,经数百年的东征西讨,形成地跨欧亚非三大洲的帝国,创造了灿烂的古罗马文明。古罗马时期是意大利历史上一个辉煌无比的历史阶段,由此意大利这个半岛成为了古代欧洲的文化中心。如果说西方文明的源头在希腊,那么将这一文明发扬光大则是由罗马人完成的。罗马人在充分吸收希腊文明的基础上创造了自己独特的文明,建立了地跨欧亚非三大洲的空前帝国。希腊与罗马共同成就了西方文明灿烂的古典时期。罗马帝国辉煌之后,逐渐走向衰落,公元476年,西罗马帝国的末代皇帝罗慕洛斯·奥古斯都被废黜,日耳曼首领鄂多亚克登基,将意大利分为多个区域,继续使用拉丁语,续写亚平宁半岛的历史、意大利的历史。

一、罗马社会的形成

古罗马人是印欧语族的一支,起源于多瑙河下游至黑海北岸一带,向四方迁徙,向东进入南亚次大陆有雅利安人,向中亚和伊朗迁徙的则是另一支雅利安人,向南迁徙到希腊、意大利的拉丁族等,罗马人则是拉丁族的一个分支,而向西则有凯尔特人和日耳曼人等。罗马人所隶属的拉丁族是印欧语族的一支,分别从东欧多瑙河流域南下至意大利,时间大致在公元前2000年至公元前1000年之间,主要定居在意大利东南面的拉丁姆平原,当时与这些拉丁族迁徙至意大利的还有其他印欧语族人,如萨宾人、埃魁人、伏耳西人、翁布里亚人等。在当时的意大利还存在着一个叫做伊达拉里亚的民族,他们文化发达,制度先进,有自己的王国,并将这一切先进的东西带到了罗马。他们不是印欧语族人,他们给了罗马人屈辱,让罗马人怨恨,当然也给了罗马人很多有用的东西,罗马人由此走上了自己独特的发展道路。

罗马人以一则美丽的神话阐释其先祖的由来:在特洛伊与希腊长达十年的战争的尾声,特洛伊城陷落之时,特洛伊王子伊尼阿斯背父携妻儿逃往意大利,途中父亲与妻子亡故,定居后娶了意大利王拉丁努斯之女拉维尼亚,建立了维尼亚城,由此产生了拉丁民族,伊尼阿斯王子的母亲是维纳斯。历经数代,传至努米托,被弟弟阿穆略夺取王位,阿穆略杀死他哥哥的儿子,留下一个女儿西尔维亚,囚于孤塔中。战神马尔斯与她幽会,生下孪生兄弟罗慕路斯与勒摩。篡位者将两个孩子抛到台伯河中,孩子漂至岸边,一只母狼用乳汁救活了兄弟二人,后被人收养。成年后,罗慕路斯杀死叔叔,夺回王位,在母狼哺育他们的地方建立了罗马城。罗慕路斯的神话难以证实,但喂养他的母狼形象则渗透在罗马城上,隐匿在罗马城建造之始历史背景的迷雾中。这则神话故事使拉丁人的先祖神圣化,与古希腊女神维纳斯攀上了亲,让子孙后代感到无上的荣光。

罗马社会组织的军事性从一开始就显现出了它的鲜明特色和强大力量。罗马社会实施军事民主制,其特点是以父权制家族组成的氏族部落为基本单位,罗马人与拉宾人两族结为联盟,相互共融,再无血缘异己之分别,这与一般纯凭血缘为纽带的自然氏族社会完全不同,渗入了更多人为因素。在标志原始社会血缘关系的氏族逐渐衰落后,家族或家庭在罗马社会中仍具有很强的凝聚力,具体体现在以下三个方面:

家长法权:家长对于家庭财产具有绝对的处置权,对于家庭成员(包括妻子和儿女)则有生杀予夺之权。家庭成员对于家长的尊重就等同于对于对祖先、传统、法律和秩序的尊重,由此产生了罗马人的祖先崇拜,这又使罗马人的组织性、纪律性得到了加强,“家长法权确实是罗马人常用不衰的一个法宝,它首先保证了罗马民族生存发展必不可少的纪律性”。(朱龙华)这一方面,罗马人是近似传统的中国人,但在组织性与纪律性方面远远超过传统中国社会。

家庭宗教:罗马人的宗教崇拜可分为公共与家庭两个层面,即由国家或地方主持的各类祭奠天地诸神的活动,祈求神赐福,和由家庭负责组织的祭奠祖先和家宅诸神,这后者具有了家庭宗教的意义。其内容虽简单但产生的精神力量却是巨大的,“罗马共和国最明显与众不同的特点是罗马人对宗教的信仰。我相信,正是这种执著认真近于迷信的信仰——它在其他民族可能被讥为一种羞辱——保持了罗马国家的凝聚力。这种信仰在罗马人的公私生活中都采取极为隆重的形式,而且可以说已达到没有什么东西能超过它们的程度。”(朱龙华)罗马人的宗教信仰不仅增强了罗马社会的凝聚力,而且从内在精神上确保了罗马人的忠诚、诚实和廉洁。

家庭教育:罗马社会赋予家庭教育子女的责任是重大的和全面的,因为家庭包揽了子女教育的一切,没有建立公共学校以承担教育后代的义务。家庭教育的主要内容是品德培养,而不是文化传授。家长通过严厉的训诫、严格的管束和社会的实践把子女们培养成罗马社会需要的人才。品德是有明确的内涵界定的,勇武为品德之首,具体包括严肃、虔敬和质朴等三项。这三项品质与勇武构成罗马社会所需的理想人才的全部素质,也是罗马这个军事社会对于人才要求的基本内涵。

二、罗马帝国时期

罗马也像希腊一样肇始于城邦,全盘继承和充分吸收了希腊文化,逐渐从一个小城邦发展成为地跨整个地中海区域的大帝国,开始实行共和制,后来演变成帝国体制。罗马城先后作为罗马共和国(公元前510—前27年)和罗马帝国(公元前27—公元476年)都城达千年之久。罗马人的奋斗历程:在拉丁姆平原定居下来后,各种危险与挑战就伴随着他们,首先是拉丁族人内部的争斗,与当地的土著人的斗争,以及而后为了发展所进行的开疆拓土战争过程中与来自于其他文化和民族的人们的残酷厮杀,最后终于建立了以地中海为中心地跨三大洲的空前庞大的帝国。

经过长途迁徙,定居到南意大利拉丁姆平原的罗马人,首先面对的是土著人的仇视与反抗,从公元前510年建立共和到罗马人攻克伊达拉里亚首都塔奎尼亚的公元前351年为标志,他们开始统治伊达拉里亚全境;而后罗马人还得逐一降服印欧族的其他族人,如埃魁人、伏尔西人、翁不利亚人以及其他拉丁人,巩固他们的统治地位。其次,罗马人开始征服意大利半岛的计划,其主要敌人是萨莫奈人,经过三次大规模的战争(公元前343—前341年;公元前327—前304年;公元前298—前290年),萨莫奈人被彻底打垮,撒落在南意沿海的其他希腊小城邦也都望风归降了。其三,罗马人向亚平宁半岛的左右两边开拓,建立大罗马帝国。其东岸,由于希腊各小王国互相攻伐,一片混乱,很容易收渔人之利,而西边则是心腹之患,尤其是占有突尼斯到西班牙的迦太基,国力强盛,且有一代名将汉尼拔,很难对付,罗马人最终以三次“布匿战争”(公元前264—前241年;公元前218—前201年;公元前149—前146年)将称雄一时的迦太基降服;在地中海东面,三次马其顿战争便彻底击败希腊与马其顿(公元前214—前205年;公元前200—前197年;公元前171—前168年);历时四年的叙利亚战争便控制了叙利亚及其附近的地区,埃及则不战而降,成为了罗马帝国的一个部分。公元前146年,罗马灭迦太基和科林斯,历史学家一般将这一年定为罗马帝国开始年。罗马以无与伦比的军事力量,以摧枯拉朽之势荡平了地中海周边的各个国家,建立了世界级大帝国。

在成就罗马帝国伟业的过程中,罗马的政治制度与军事制度发挥了重要作用。罗马政治制度可谓民主、王权、贵族结合的三位一体的政体,“如果注意到执政官的权利,它似乎是君主或王权政体;如果注意到元老院的权利,它似乎又是贵族政体;若再注意到民众的权利,它似乎又是很明显的民主政体。”(朱龙华)这一优越的政治制度既有效地避免了个人独裁,又使国家能保持适时应变的能力。历史也证明了罗马在建立以地中海为中心的帝国时,其制度经受了无数次的考验,终于获得巨大胜利。罗马的军事制度以及训练有素的士兵则是其无往而不胜的根本保障。罗马文化的诸特点赋予每个罗马人以高度的纪律性和勇武精神,而其军队组织和战略运用都充分发挥个体士兵的军事素质和技能。在长达数百年的战争中,罗马人一直保持军事优势,主要不是依靠个别天才将领的出色谋划,而是依赖罗马军团的整体军事素养,以及罗马军事统治集团集体智慧的综合运用,尤其是在第二次布匿战争中,面对世界军事史上旷世奇才迦太基的主帅汉尼拔,几乎让罗马人遭遇灭顶之灾,罗马人仍能凭借其军团的卓越军事素质和集体智慧战胜敌人,改写历史。

三、罗马帝国灭亡后的意大利

公元476年,一批批被称作“蛮族”的民族攻入罗马帝国核心地带,他们主要是日耳曼人,曾经盛极一时的罗马帝国崩溃了,末代皇帝罗慕洛斯·奥古斯都被废黜了,日耳曼首领鄂多亚克登基了,由此开启了意大利历史的新时代。

意大利被划分成多个政治区域,因为他们共同的语言——拉丁语使彼此之间依然长期保持着联系,但政治上的不统一给语言带来许多新变化,方言进一步强化;早已传入的基督教则在不断传播,成为了凝聚人们的新的力量。1183年,“神圣罗马帝国”皇帝腓特烈一世被迫在康斯坦萨和约上签字,承认中北部的意大利城邦具有自治权,这对意大利新兴城市发展起了决定性作用,但形式上仍接受“神圣罗马帝国”统治。

拉丁语的方言即通俗语诞生于13世纪,流行于14世纪。14世纪后半叶,意大利半岛由威尼斯城市共和国、佛罗伦萨城市共和国、米兰公国、教皇国和那不勒斯王国等五大王国主宰。1454年,《洛迪协议》签署,1455年意大利联盟成立,为意大利赢得了40年和平局面,这就为文艺复兴提供了必要的条件;文艺复兴时期意大利中部托斯卡纳出现了三位伟大的诗人,产生了三部不朽之作,但丁《神曲》(La Divina Commedia)、彼特拉克《歌集》(Canzoniere)和薄伽丘《十日谈》(Decameron);以方言为基础形成的统一语言,也就是后来所称的意大利语诞生了,诗人们的家乡托斯卡纳地区首府佛罗伦萨便成了意大利文化的发祥地。这一时期,文化虽然很繁荣,但政治上仍是四分五裂的。1527年,罗马遭受洗劫,一般都认为这是文艺复兴运动的结束,起因是神圣罗马帝国与法国争夺意大利的控制权,兵临罗马城下,统帅波旁公爵却战死了,于是他那群毫无组织与素质的士兵开进城中,随意破坏与劫掠罗马城。随后西班牙人开始了对意大利长达150年的统治,到1713年才结束。西班牙人统治意大利得到了意大利贵族的暗中支持,当地人认为可以帮助维持和平,为他们提供保护。17世纪,西班牙“无敌舰队”被英国打败,雄风不在,不能为意大利提供保护,意大利北部又成为了欧洲的战场。1713年的《乌得勒支和约》确认了这一变化,意大利的统治权又转到了奥地利哈布斯堡王朝手中。1796年,拿破仑入侵意大利,试图改变这一格局,但他战败后,在1815年的维也纳会议上又一次恢复了这一格局,意大利统一的希望仍很渺茫。

在19世纪,意大利终于赢得全国的统一,建立起了一个真正的民族国家。在意大利统一的过程中,产生了三位神奇的人物,他们是雄心勃勃的皮尔蒙特国王维托里奥·埃马努埃莱二世(Vittorio EmanueleⅡ),杰出的政治家、外交家卡米洛·迪·加富尔(Camillo di Cavour)和智勇双全的军事统帅朱塞佩·加里波第(Giuseppe Garibaldi)。1848年,意大利统一大业受挫,失去良机,大多数邦国处境艰难,奥地利依然牢牢控制着它们。在这一片失望的景象中,皮埃蒙特是个例外,它保住了宪法,也基本上保住了独立,这部宪法后来成为了统一后的意大利宪法。维托里奥·埃马努埃莱二世国王意志坚定,能力超群,为了保住王位,他保住自己不喜欢的这个宪法,因为这个宪法符合奥地利利益。出身于皮埃蒙特贵族的加富尔阅历广泛,是一位足智多谋的政治家,他出色的政治才能和外交才能使他能够纵横捭阖,为国家统一扫清了许多内外障碍。不久,加富尔把从意大利全境招募的军队交由朱塞佩·加里波第指挥,他出色地发挥了自己的军事天才,出乎加富尔的预料,他很快战胜了强大的那不勒斯军队,夺取了南方城市和西西里岛等,法国由于英国的压力没有出兵干预,奥地利也无暇顾及意大利,随后在德国的统一战争中,法军被打败,拿破仑三世被俘,这一大好国际形势对意大利则是千载难逢的机遇。1870年9月20日,意大利军队长驱直入,开进罗马城,通过全民表决,罗马并入意大利王国,至此完成了意大利统一大业,这是罗马帝国灭亡之后,意大利首次成为一个统一的民族国家。

四、古罗马与意大利文化的创造

罗马人是在迅速开拓疆域的同时致力于内部统一与稳固,从共和走向帝国的过程中避免了城邦的危机和动乱,主要得益于它的政治体制优势。在征服希腊之后,罗马人开始系统吸收和消化希腊文化,有人认为罗马人仅是简单地模仿或抄袭希腊,甚至被人称之为“征服者被征服”,其实罗马人更主要是植根于他们的拉丁传统之中,在与伊达拉里亚人,以及其他印欧语族人的冲突和融合中,借鉴这些民族的文化,创造了具有鲜明特色的罗马文化。

其一,罗马人的法律与史学。罗马人不仅以雷霆般的铁骑征服了周边国家,而且在政治法律方面的建树亦彪炳史册。他们制订了公民法、裁判官法、万民法等法律体系。从早期根据习惯法、无成文法到成文法的制订,出现《十二铜表法》,标志平民的胜利,开启罗马法律建设的历程。立法过程是一个各个阶级、阶层争取权利斗争的过程,更是社会进步和法学思想深化的过程。西塞罗认为,“因为正义只有一个,它约束整个人类社会,并且是建立在一个应用于支配和禁止的正当的理性的法的基础上的。”(西塞罗)这一自然法的理论成为罗马法学的主导思想。以盖尤斯、鲍卢斯、乌尔比安努斯、帕比尼诺斯和莫德斯丁努斯等“法学五杰”综合概括归纳,罗马法体系臻于完善,成为后世西方法律制度的典范,如拿破仑在制订他的《法国民法典》时把罗马法奉为圭臬。罗马史学成绩斐然,不仅产生了以希腊语写作历史的普鲁塔克,他以希腊人的优势对比丰富的希腊史遗产,客观观察、冷静分析对比希腊罗马历史,而且还产生了素有拉丁文散文三大家之称的李维、塔西佗和西塞罗。李维的鸿篇巨制《罗马史》(History of Rome)近千万言,可谓气魄雄浑,气象万千,恰当地表现了罗马文化的开阔精神。

其二,罗马人的文学。罗马时期文学从政治人物的散文到专业作家的作品,共同创造了拉丁文学的辉煌。凯撒大帝既是卓越的政治家,也是出色的散文家。他著有《高卢战记》(Gallic Wars)、《内战记》(Civil War)等,文体简洁,无意为文而文辞清雅。西塞罗是杰出的政治家,更是拉丁散文泰斗。他文章精妙,独领风骚。作品流传下来有演说词57篇,修辞学和哲学残篇20篇,以及大量书简,在拉丁作家中数量最多。维吉尔是奥古斯都时期文学的核心人物、重要诗人。现存有《牧歌》10篇,以及史诗《伊尼阿特》(Aeneid)12卷,他这一史诗是拉丁民族的史诗,堪与荷马史诗媲美。贺拉斯与维吉尔齐名,都是奥古斯都诗坛领袖,以短歌抒情而闻名于世,有《颂歌》4卷、《讽刺诗》和《书信诗》各2卷传世。他的颂诗优美恬静,可谓古典抒情诗杰作。两人诗风殊异,但异曲同工,共同传达罗马之精神。奥维德不同于前两个诗人,个性狂放,反叛精神奠定了他爱情诗的基调,情感浓烈而不乏讥讽嘲弄。后获罪于奥古斯都·屋大维,被流放到黑海沿岸托密斯(今罗马尼亚康斯坦扎),渡过残生。流放中,发奋创作《变形记》(Metamorphoses),皇皇巨著,影响深远,超过其他拉丁文学。阿普列乌斯的《金驴记》(L'Asino D'Oro)集神话、传说、言情、趣事于一体,诙谐幽默,深受读者喜爱,成为不朽的拉丁文名著。

其三,罗马人的建筑与雕刻艺术。罗马人几乎是在建国之初,就在卡彼托林山上造了一个大庙宇,供奉朱庇特、朱诺和密涅瓦三神,还相继造了农神萨冬庙、谷神塞勒斯庙、商业神麦库里神庙等,开启了罗马建筑之先河。卡彼托林山慢慢具有了国家最高权力的象征,美国也将华盛顿的国会山称作卡彼托林。在罗马广场的西南角建造萨冬神庙,东北角则是元老院大厦,即“库里亚堂”,南面的巴拉丁山是贵族聚居地和皇宫所在地。象征民族文化统一的柱式拱门联合结构,在哥罗塞姆竞技场达到至美至善境界。建筑在罗马广场东南角的提图斯凯旋门渗透着古典精神,雕刻精美,纪念皇帝平定耶路撒冷犹太起义。罗马图拉真广场的图拉真纪念柱上的浮雕,内容丰富,技艺精湛。哈德良时期建造的万神祠,至今保存完好,专用于供奉众神灵,坐落在偏离罗马广场的神圣地带的北城新区,美国许多大学的图书馆和办公楼以万神祠为蓝本建造。当然还有许许多多宏伟的建筑,成为了古罗马文化的一个重要方面。雕塑是罗马艺术的一个重要方面,其代表作有:1506年出土的“拉奥孔”群像,它是最杰出的古典雕刻之作,作者以完美的技法表现了人的动态和内心情感,其丰富、深沉达到了后世难以企及的程度。罗马帝国初期,青铜的骑马像具有重要意义,这类雕像唯一保存完好的现立于罗马卡彼托林广场的马可·奥利略骑马像,皇帝端坐马上,坐骑昂首扬蹄,象征帝国的统一、和平与稳定。图拉真纪念柱上的浮雕,工程浩繁,绝非少数人短期可以完成,其中人物超过2500个,情节和场面也有155幅,表现图拉真远征达西亚的场景,浮雕技法娴熟,内容就是历史的故事,颂扬了罗马人的武功,更表现他们务实和一丝不苟的精神。

其四,罗马人的科学技术。罗马继承了希腊文化的许多优秀传统,在科学技术方面也不例外,尤其是在进入帝国时期之后,罗马的科学技术活动完全纳入帝国文化的总体设计之中,产生了一系列科学巨著和高水平的技术。老普林尼的《自然史》(The History of Nature)集中体现了当时科技文化综合的特点,全书长达37卷,内容包括科技成果的方方面面、手工技艺、社会经济、人物评论等,参考文献2000种之多,可谓包罗万象。斯特拉波的《地理学》(Geography),共17卷,虽无《自然史》之全面和渊博,但在内容深入方面则远远超过。其内容包括欧亚非三大洲的地理知识,可以说是地理大发现之前西方人所知晓的世界地理的全部知识。赛尔苏斯的《医学大全》(Complete Book of Medical Science),共8卷,不仅有治疗学、病理学等科学知识,更有外科手术、外科整形术等实用医学技术,集当时医学之大成。医学家盖伦从自己担任御医的医学实践中,从解剖学角度认识人体器官,标志着解剖学的萌芽;他有关药物学的著述囊括100种矿物药、180种动物药和540种植物药等,堪称西方古代药物大全。托勒密的《天文学大成》(A lmagest),影响深远,不仅有天体结构、天体运动和日月星辰运动规律的描述,还有天文仪器的制作与使用,汇集了古代天文学的全部知识,当然其根本错误“地球中心说”直到哥白尼提出“日心说”才得以纠正。在技术方面,罗马人高度重视技术的作用,罗马帝国在铁的开采、冶炼和铁制工具、武器方面的发展都超过了前代。为了提高劳动生产率,广泛推广带轮的重型犁具,还有高卢地区出现的畜力收割机,水轮机、水磨、水车等在采矿业、磨粉业和纺织业中广泛推广运用。科学家、发明家和工程师赫伦制造出复杂的滑轮系统和起重机械、双缸单程鼓风机、计里程器虹吸管、测量照准仪、投币自动限量供水龙头等等。

其五,意大利文化仍有许多影响世界的重要成果。威尼斯旅行家马可·波罗的《游记》(ⅡMilione),以作者自己在中国元朝宫廷供职17年的经历和在中国游历所见所闻写成的一部游记,反映中国古代政治、经济、社会风貌和人情世故,激发了西方世界了解中国的热情,也促进了西方人开辟新航道的系列探险活动。文艺复兴时期,但丁(Dante Alghieri,1265—1321)、彼特拉克(Francesco Petrarca,1304—1374)和薄伽丘(Giovanni Boccaccio,1312—1375)三大文学大师以他们各自的代表作《神曲》、《歌集》和《十日谈》奠定了意大利文学的基础,并使他们共同的家乡方言——托斯卡纳首府佛罗伦萨方言逐渐演变成了标准意大利语,成为世界文学的瑰宝。意大利艺术三杰,列奥纳多·达·芬奇(Leonardo da Vinci,1452-1519)、拉斐尔(Raffaello Sanzio,1483-1520)和米开朗基罗(Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni,1475-1564)以卓越的艺术作品开创了一个新时代,使意大利在文化上处于欧洲的前列;还产生贝尔纳尔迪诺·泰莱西奥(Bernardino Telesio,1509—1588)、乔尔达诺·布鲁诺(Giordano Bruno,1548—1600)、托马索·康帕内拉(Tommaso Campanella,1568—1639)和伽利略(Galileo Galilei,1564—1642)等世界级的哲学家和科学家;在史学和政治学方面,尼科洛·马基雅维利(Niccolo Machiavelli,1469—1527)以著名《君主论》(ⅡPrincipe)闻名于世。

在近千年的历史长河中,罗马创造了无与伦比的辉煌,不仅有赫赫武功彪炳史册,更有不朽文治流芳千秋,成为后世难以企及的典范。有人说,“一切学习古典、仿效古典的古典主义艺术实际上都是罗马文化和罗马风格的恢复。”(威廉·弗莱明)文艺复兴就是一场复活古希腊和罗马文化的文化创造活动。罗马这座古城确曾被毁灭了,作为西方的帝都,它风光不再,但是作为基督教的世界之都,它的建筑、雕刻和文学则是各国人民朝拜和敬仰的偶像。在这个意义上,罗马城仍是世人心目中的永恒之城。罗马帝国灭亡后的意大利,政治上虽长期四分五裂,文艺复兴仍领导西方世界,十九世纪统一后的意大利建立了民族国家,继续书写辉煌的历史篇章。第二节 文化典籍节选Section Two Selected Translations of Masterpieces1.TheMeditationsby MarcusAureliusBook Two

Begin each day by telling yourself:I shall be meeting with interference, ingratitude,insolence,disloyalty,ill‐will,and selfishness─all of them due to the offenders'ignorance of what is good or evil.But for my part I have long perceived the nature of good and its nobility,the nature of evil and its meanness,and also the nature of the evil doer himself,who is my brother(not in the physical sense,but as a fellow‐creature similarly endowed with reason and a share of the divine);therefore none of these things can injure me,for nobody can implicate me in what is degrading.Neither can I be angry with my brother or fall foul of him;for he and I were born to work together,like a man's two hands,feet,or eyelids,or like the upper and lower rows of his teeth.To obstruct each other is against Nature's law─and what is irritation or aversion but a form of obstruction.

A little flesh,a little breath,and a Reason to rule all─that is myself.As one already on the threshold of death,think nothing of the first─of its viscid thick blood,its bones,its web of nerves and veins and arteries.The breath,too;what is that?A whiff of wind;and not even the same kind,but every moment puffed out and drawn in anew.But the third,the Reason,the master─on this you must concentrate.Now that your hairs are grey,let it play the part of a slave no more,twitching puppet‐wise at every pull of self‐interest;and cease to fume at destiny by ever grumbling at today or lamenting over tomorrow.

Hour by hour resolve firmly,like a Roman and a man,to do what comes to hand with correct and natural dignity,and with humanity,independence,and justice.Allow your mind freedom from all other considerations.This you can do,if you will approach each action as though it were your last,dismissing the wayward thought,the emotional recoil from the commands of reason,the desire to create an impression,the admiration of self,the discontent with your lot.See how little a man needs to master,for his days to flow on in quietness and piety:he has but to observe these few counsels,and the gods will ask nothing more.Book Three

If mortal life can offer you anything better than justice and truth,self‐control and courage─that is,peace of mind in the evident conformity of your actions to the laws of reason,and peace of mind under the visitations of a destiny you cannot control─if,I say,you can discern any higher ideal,why, turn to it with your whole,and rejoice in the prize you have found.

Never value the advantage derived from anything involving breach of faith,loss of self‐respect,hatred,suspicion,or execration of others,insincerity,or the desire for something which has to be veiled and curtained.One whose chief regard is for his own mind,and for the divinity within him and the service of its goodness,will strike no poses,under no complaints,and crave neither for solitude nor yet for a crowd.No other care has he in life but to keep his mind from straying into paths incompatible with those of an intelligent and social being.Book Four

Men seek for seclusion in the wilderness,by the seashore,or in the mountains─a dream you have cherished only too fondly yourself.But such fancies are wholly unworthy of a philosopher,since at any moment you choose you can retire within yourself.Nowhere can man find a quieter or more untroubled retreat than in his own soul;above all,he who possesses resources in himself,which he needs only contemplate to secure immediate ease of mind─the ease that is but another word for a well‐ordered spirit.Avail yourself often,then,of this retirement,and so continually renew yourself.Make your rules of life brief,yet so as to embrace the fundamentals;recurrence to them will then suffice to remove all vexation,and send you back without fretting to the duties to which you must return...

If the power of thought is universal among mankind,so likewise is the possession of reason,making us rational creatures.It follows,therefore,that this reason speaks no less universally to us all with its“thou shalt”or“thou shalt not.”So then there is a world‐law,which in turn means that we are all fellow‐citizens and share a common citizenship,and that the world is a single city.Is there any other common citizenship that can be claimed by all humanity?And it is from this world‐polity that mind,reason,and law themselves derive.If not,whence else?As the earthly portion of me has its origin from earth,the watery from a different element,my breath from one source and my hot and fiery parts from another of their own elsewhere(for nothing comes from nothing,or can return to nothing),so too there must be an origin for the mind.Book Five

At day's first light have in readiness,against disinclination to leave your bed,the thought that“I am rising for the work of man.”Must I grumble at setting out to do what I was born for,and for the sake of which I have been brought into the world?Is this the purpose of my creation,to lie here under the blankets and keep myself warm?“Ah,but it is a great deal more pleasant!”Was it for pleasure,then,that you were born,and not for work,not for effort?Look at the plants,the sparrows,ants,spiders,bees,all busy at their own tasks,each doing his part towards a coherent world‐order;and will you refuse man's share of the work,instead of being prompt to carry out Nature's bidding?“Yes,one must have some repose as well.”Granted;but repose has its limits set by nature,in the same way as food and drink have;and you overstep these limits,you go beyond the point of sufficiency;while on the other hand,when action is in question,you stop short of what you could well achieve.

《沉思录》(选译)

马尔库斯·奥利乌斯 著卷二

每天清晨时告诫自己:我将会碰到诸如干涉、忘恩负义、傲慢无礼、背叛、怨恨和自私等恶劣行为——人们犯这些过错缘于他们对于善恶之别的无知。但是,就我而言,我早已洞悉善之本质以及它的崇高性、恶的本质以及它的卑劣性以及犯错者的本性,他是我的兄弟(不是血缘意义上,而是作为我的同胞,被赋予同样的理性和具有某种神性这一层面意义上的兄弟),所以这一切恶劣品质都不能伤害我,谁也休想使我卷入卑劣之事中。我也不会对我的同胞生气,或与他们争吵,因为我们生来注定要协同工作的,正像人之双手、双脚,或眼帘,或像上牙与下牙一样。互相妨碍有悖于自然之定律——彼此感到愤怒或厌恶也是一种妨碍。

一小块肌肉,一口气,和些许驾驭一切的理性——那就是构成我的全部。正如一个濒临死亡的人,首先,不要太在意那稠乎乎的血液、骨骸、神经系统、静脉和动脉。其次,还有那口气,那是什么?一阵风而已;不是同一类东西,但是每时每刻都要呼出空气,又要重新吸进空气。可是,其三,理性是主宰——你得关注它。既然头发都花白了,就不要让理智再像个奴隶,像傀儡一样受私利驱使,再也不要抱怨命运,谴责今天,哀叹明天。

每时每刻都要下定决心,像一个罗马人、一个真正的男人,带着正确和自然的尊严感,以仁爱之心、独立精神和正义感去做该做的事情。让你的头脑摆脱所有其他顾虑。如果做任何事情都以这种紧迫感,仿佛那是你最后的时刻,排出虚妄的想法,去除情感胆怯,听从理性指引,排出为自我造像、自我欣赏又自叹命运不济的欲望。看看一个人所要掌握的是如此之少,他的时光将在宁静和虔敬中流逝:他只需遵守这几点忠告即可,上帝则别无所求。卷三

现实人生如能给你比公正和真理、自制和勇气更好的——也就是说,在你的行动与理性之道明显谐和中产生的宁静心境与你无法控制的命运降临下产生的宁静心境——你若能认识到更高的理想,嗨!以全部的身心投向它,为自己找到这珍品欢庆吧!

任何因背弃信仰、丧失自尊、憎恨、怀疑或憎恶他人、缺乏虔诚或获取某种需掩盖的东西而得到的优势,不要太看重它。人首要考虑的是自己的心境、自己内在的神性,以及为善之举,他不应装模作样,牢骚满腹,也不应渴望幽居独处或依恋熙攘人海。生命中,他不应有其他眷念,但愿此心不会迷失于歧途——一条与智慧群居的人类相左的道路上。卷四

人总是在荒野、海滩或深山里寻找归隐之所——这也是你自己深情地珍藏的梦想。但是,一个哲人全然不值得拥有这些梦幻,因为他随时都可选择退隐到自我的深层。人们在哪儿都找不到一个比自己灵魂深处更加宁静、更加没有纷扰的退隐之所;他拥有自我这个资源,他只需要进入沉思便立刻获得心绪的静谧——心绪静谧也就是精神健全的同义表达。那么,多多利用自己这归隐之所,不断获得自我更新的能力。简化生活的信条,然而仍要包含基本信念;回归这些基本信念就足以帮助去除烦恼,以承担自己必须承担的义务而不心焦气躁。

人的思维能力具有普遍性,理性亦然,它使人成为理性的生灵。因此,顺理成章,这一理性以“你应该”或“你不应该”的方式对我们讲就不那么有普遍性。所以,有一世界法则,即我们都是同胞,拥有共同的公民身份,而世界就是一个城市。还有所有人类都能拥有其他共同的公民身份吗?正是源于这个世界共同体,人们的心智、理性和法则才产生。如果不是,他们缘何而来呢?正如我泥土性的一面来自泥土,水性的一面则来自不同的元素,我的气源于一个地方,热的部分则来源于其他地方(无生于无,或回归于无),所以,心智一定来自于某个地方。卷五

在每天东方露出第一缕阳光之时,做好准备,克服为难情绪,起床,想着“我起床要开始人必须做的工作了”。难道我要对自己生来必须要做之事嘟嘟囔囔吗?我不就是为了这些工作才来到世上吗?躺在温暖的床上,难道这就是创造我的目的吗?“啊,但是,这是更加令人愉快的啊!”那么,你就是生来为了愉悦、不是为了工作、不是为了努力吗?看看这些植物、麻雀、蚂蚁、蜘蛛、蜜蜂,自然万物都在忙碌着,尽自己一份职责,共同缔造着和谐的世界秩序;你难道要拒绝自己该做的一份努力、而不是执行自然的要求吗?“是的,但人都得有劳有逸嘛。”姑且承认这一点;但是,大自然给人们的休息设置了极限,在某种意义上,吃饭和喝水也一样设有极限;你越过这些极限,你就超过了丰足的极点。而另一方面,在行动受到质疑,你却停下来不去实现你原本可以做到的事情。2.Summa Theologicaby ThomasAquinas

Third Article:Whether God Exist?

I answer that,the existence of God can be proved in five ways.

The first and more manifest way is the argument from motion.It is certain,and evident to our senses,that in the world some things are in motion.Now whatever is in motion is put in motion by another,for nothing can be in motion except it is in potentiality to that towards which it is in motion;whereas a thing moves inasmuch as it is in act.For motion is nothing else than the reduction of something from potentiality to actuality.But nothing can be reduced from potentiality to actuality,except by something in a state of actuality.Thus that which is actually hot,as fire,makes wood,which is potentially hot,to be actually hot,and thereby moves and changes it.Now it is not possible that the same thing should be at once in actuality and potentiality in the same respect,but only in different respects.For what is actually hot cannot simultaneously be potentially hot;but it is simultaneously cold.It is therefore impossible that in the same respect and in the same way a thing should be both a mover and moved,i.e.,that it should move itself.Therefore,whatever is in motion must be put in motion by another.If that by which it is put in motion be itself put in motion,then this also must need be put in motion by another,and that by another again.But this cannot go on to infinity,because then there would be no first mover,and,consequently,no other mover,seeing that subsequent movers move only inasmuch as they are put in motion by the first mover;as the staff moves only because it is put in motion by the hand.Therefore it is necessary to arrive at a first mover,put in motion by no other;and this everyone understands to be God.

The second way is from the nature of efficient cause.In the world of sense we find there is an order of efficient causes.There is no case known(neither is it,indeed,possible)in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself;for so it would be prior to itself,which is impossible.Now in efficient causes it is not possible to go on to infinity,because in all efficient causes following in order,the first is the cause of the intermediate cause,and the intermediate is the cause of the ultimate cause,whether the intermediate cause be several,or only one.Now to take away the cause is to take away the effect.Therefore,if there be no first cause among efficient causes,there will be no ultimate,nor any intermediate cause.But if in efficient causes it is possible to go on to infinity,there will be no first efficient cause,neither will there be an ultimate effect,nor any intermediate efficient causes;all of which is plainly false.Therefore it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause,to which everyone gives the name of God.

The third way is taken from possibility and necessity,and runs thus.We find in nature things that are possible to be and not to be,since they are found to be generated,and to be corrupted,and consequently,it is possible for them to be and not to be.But it is impossible for these always to exist,for that which cannot be at some time is not.Therefore,if everything cannot be,then at one time there was nothing in existence.Now if this were true,even now,there would be nothing in existence,because that which does not exist begins to exist only through something already existing.Therefore,if at one time nothing was in existence,it would have been impossible for anything to have begun to exist;and thus even now nothing would be in existence─which is absurd.Therefore,not all beings are merely possible,but there must exist something the existence of which is necessary.But every necessary thing either has its necessity caused by another,or not.Now it is impossible to go to infinity in necessary things which have their necessity caused by another,as has been already proved in regard to efficient causes.Therefore we cannot but postulate the existence of some being having of itself its own necessity,and not receiving it from another,but rather causing in others their necessity.This all men speak of as God.

The fourth way is taken from the graduation to be found in things.Among beings there are some more and some less good,true,noble,and the like.But more and less are predicted of different things according as they resemble in their different ways something which is the maximum,as a thing is said to be hotter according as it more nearly resembles that which is hottest;so that there is something which is truest,something best,something noblest and,consequently,something which is uttermost being,for those things that are greatest in truth are greatest in being.Now the maximum in any genus is the cause of all in that genus,as fire,which is the maximum heat,is the cause of all hot things.Therefore there must also be something which is to all beings the cause of their being,goodness,and every other perfection;and this we call God.

The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world.We see that things which lack intelligence,such as natural bodies,act for an end,and this is evident from their acting always,or nearly always,in the same way,so as to obtain the best result.Hence it is plain that they achieve their end,not fortuitously,but designedly.Now whatever lacks intelligence cannot move towards an end,unless it be directed by some being endowed with knowledge and intelligence;as the arrow is shot to its mark by the archer.Therefore some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end;and this being we call God.

《神学大全》(选译)

托马斯·阿奎纳斯 著第三款:上帝是否存在?

我认为,上帝存在可由五种方法证明。

第一种方法,也是最显而易见的方法是从运动的角度加以证明。对于我们的感官而言,世界上的一些物体在运动,这点毫无疑问。任何运动的物体都是在另一物体的推动下才开始运动的,任何物体除非具有向某个方向移动的潜能,否则不可能使其开始运动;而一物体所处的位置就是它运动停止之所。运动不是别的,而是使一物体由潜在运动状态变为现实运动状态。但是,除非在某一处于现实运动状态的物体的作用下,任何物体都不可能由潜在运动状态转化到现实运动状态。所以,处于现实热状态的火可使具有潜在热状态的木头转化成现实的热状态,使其运动并发生变化。任何物体在同一时间既处于现实运动又处于潜在运动状态是不可能的,但在不同时间则是可能的。处于现实的热状态的物体不能同时也处于潜在热状态,但它可以同时处于潜在的冷状态。因此,一个物体不可能在相同方面和以相同方式既是推动者又是被推动者,也就是说,它是自己的推动者。所以,任何处于运动的物体都必须是在另一物体作用下才开始运动的。推动其他物体运动的物体本身也处于运动,那么它必然是由另一物体推动的,另一物体也是由其他物体推动才开始运动。但是,这不能一直推导至无穷,因为那样就不会有第一推动者,也就没有其他推动者,既然后面物体的运动都是由于第一推动者的作用,正如一根棍棒移动仅是因为人手的推动一样。因此,我们必然得出不受其他物体推动的第一推动者,这便是人们理解的上帝。

第二种方法便是从动力因的性质上来证明。在感官的世界里,我们发现有一些种类的动力因。已知的例子里没有一个被证实是它自身的动力因(确实也不可能是它自己的动力因);所以它也许是在它自身之前,这是不可能的。在动力因里,它不可能无限追溯下去,因为在所有动力因序列里,第一个动力因是中间动力因产生的原因,中间动力因又是最终动力因产生的原因,中间动力因究竟是几个,还是仅有一个。如果排除原因,也就排除了结果。因此,动力因里如没有第一原因,也就没有最终和中间原因了。但是,在动力因里如果可能无限追溯下去,也就没有第一动力因,也没有最终动力因和中间动力因,这一切显然是荒谬的。所以,必须承认有第一动力因,人们将其称之为上帝。

第三种方法则是从可能性和必要性角度证明。在自然界中,我们发现万物可能存在,然后毁灭;人们发现他们被创生了,又被毁灭了,其结果可能是万物存在,又归于不存在。但是,不可能使这些物体总是存在,因为在某个时间里不存在之物是不存在的。因此,如果没有任何存在之物,那么在某个时间里就没有任何存在之物了。如果这是真实的,即使现在也没有存在之物,因为不存在之物开始产生仅仅是通过已存在之物。所以,如果过去没有任何之物,也就不可能有任何物体开始产生,这样即使现在也不会有存在之物——这是荒唐可笑的。因此,不是所有的存在之物仅仅是可能的,但是势必有某些物体,它们的存在是必要的。任何必要之物,它们存在的必要性要么是由另一物体决定的,要么不是。必要之物不可能无限追溯,它们存在的必要性是由另一物体所决定的,这点也一如动力因一样被证实了。因此,我们只能承认有某种存在,其自身便包括了自己存在的必要性,无需从另一存在获得其存在的必要性,而且还给其他存在之物提供其存在的必要性。这就是人们所说的上帝。

第四种方法是从万物级别分类的视角来证明。在所有存在之物中,在善、真、崇高等方面,有些略好,有些略差,但是预知这些不同存在之略好和略差依据它们与至善、至真以及至崇高者的相似程度,正如一物之比较热则是根据它与最热之物接近的程度而确定的。所以,存在有最真之物、至善之物以及最崇高之物,其必有终极之存在,它们是至真者,也必然是至高之存在。任何种类中最完善者都是该种类所有存在之物的因,正如最热者——火是所有热的物体的因一样。因此,一定有某种东西,它是万物之存在、善,以及所有其他完美性之因,这可称之为上帝。

第五种方法是从主宰世界的方面来证明。我们看到缺乏智力的万物,如自然之物,都朝着一个目的行动,这从它们总是或几乎总是以相同的方式行动以期获得最好的结果便可知晓。显然,它们达到目的绝非出于偶然,而是精心设计的结果。任何缺乏智力者都不可能朝着一个目标前进,除非它被秉有知识与智慧的存在者所指引,正如箭射入靶心是弓箭手之功一样。因此,由于有了某个智慧的存在者,所有自然万物都被引导着向它们的目标进发,这个存在者我们称之为上帝。3.The Princeby Niccolo MachiavelliIn what way faith should be kept by princes

Everybody knows how laudable it is in a prince to keep this faith and to be an honest man and not a trickster.Nevertheless,the experience of our times shows that the princes who have done great things are the ones who have taken little account of their promises and who have known how to addle the brains of men with craft.In the end they have conquered those who have put their reliance on good faith.

You must realize,then,that there are two ways to fight.In one kind the laws are used,in the other,force.The first is suitable to man,the second to animals.But because the first often falls short,one has to turn to the second. Hence a prince must know perfectly how to act like a beast and like a man.This truth was covertly taught to princes by ancient authors,who write that Achilles and many other ancient princes were turned over for their upbringing to Chiron the centaur,that he might keep them under his tuition.To have as teacher one who is half beast and half man means nothing else than that a prince needs to know how to use the qualities of both creatures.The one without the other will not last long.

Since,then,it is necessary for a prince to understand how to make good use of the conduct of the animals,he should select among them the fox and the lion, because the lion cannot protect himself from traps,and the fox cannot protect himself from the wolves.So the prince needs to be a fox that he may know how to deal with traps,and a lion that he may frighten the wolves.Those who act like the lion alone do not understand their business.A prudent ruler,therefore,cannot and should not observe faith when such observance is to his disadvantage and the causes that make him give his promise have vanished.If men were all good,this advice would not be good,but since men are wicked and do not keep their promises to you,you likewise do not have to keep yours to them.Lawful reasons to excuse his failure to keep them will never be lacking to a prince.It would be possible to give innumerable modern examples of this and to show many treaties and promises that have been made null and void by the faithlessness of princes.And the prince who has best known how to act as a fox has come out best.But one who has this capacity must understand how to keep it covered,and be a skilful pretender and dissembler.Men are so simple and so subject to present needs that he who deceives in this way will always find those who will let themselves be deceived.

I do not wish to keep still about one of the recent instances.Alexander VI did nothing else than deceive men,and had no other intention;yet he always found a subject to work on.There never was a man more effective in swearing that things were true,and the greater the oaths with which he made a promise,the less he observed it.Nonetheless his deceptions always succeeded to his wish,because he thoroughly understood this aspect of the world.

It is not necessary,then,for a prince really to have all the virtues mentioned above,but it is very necessary to seem to have them.I will even venture to say that they damage a prince who possesses them and always observes them,but if he seems to have them they are useful.I mean that he should seem compassionate,trustworthy,humane,honest,and religious,and actually be so;but yet he should have his mind so trained that,when it is necessary not to practice these virtues,he can change to the opposite,and do it skillfully.It is to be understood that a prince,especially a new prince,cannot observe all the things because of which men are considered good,because he is often obliged,if he wishes to maintain his government,to act contrary to faith,contrary to charity,contrary to humanity,contrary to religion.It is therefore necessary that he have a mind capable of turning in whatever direction the winds of Fortune and variations of affairs require,and,as I said above,that he should not depart from what is morally right,if he can observe it,but should know how to adopt what is bad,when he is obliged to.

A prince,then,should be very careful that there does not issue from his mouth anything that is full of the above‐mentioned five qualities.To those who see and hear him he should seem all compassion,all faith,all honesty,all humanity,all religion.There is nothing more necessary to make a show of possessing than this last quality.For men in general judge more by their eyes than by their hands;everybody is fitted to see,few to understand.Everybody sees what appear to be;few make out what you really are.And these few do not dare to oppose the opinion of the many,who have the majesty of the state to confirm their view.In the actions of all men,and especially those of princes,where there is no court to which to appeal,people think of the outcome.A prince needs only to conquer and to maintain his position.The means he has used will always be judged honorable and will be praised by everybody,because the crowd is always caught by appearance and by the outcome of events,and the crowd is all there is in the world;there is no place for the few when the many have room enough.A certain prince of the present day,whom it is not good to name,preaches nothing else than peace and faith,and is wholly opposed to both of them,and both of them,if he had observed them,would many times have taken from him either his reputation or his throne.

《君主论》(选译)

马基雅维利 著君主们该如何遵守诺言

众所周知,君主诚实,信守承诺,不欺诈,该是多么值得称赞啊!然而,现实的经验表明,成大事的君主很少考虑信守他们的诺言,他们知道怎样玩弄权术、蛊惑人心。他们最终战胜那些信守诺言者。

那么,你必须认识到,有两种搏斗的方法。一种是运用规则的,另一种则是使用武力的。第一种适合于人类,第二种适合于动物。但是仅靠第一种方法往往不够,不得不诉诸第二中方法。因此,君主必须完美掌握两种方法,野兽的和人的行事方法。古代作家早已向君主秘传此真义,他们写到,阿基里斯与其他许多古代的君主都被送到客戎——一种博学多智的半人半马的怪物那里接受教育。找这个半人半兽的教师意味着君主必须具备这两种品格,即人性的和兽性的品格,而不是别的。缺少任何一种品格都不可能持久下去。

那么,既然君主有必要知晓如何利用野兽的伎俩,他应该从中选出狐狸和狮子,因为狮子不能保护自己,避免落入陷阱,狐狸则不能保护自己,免遭狼的伤害。所以,君主需像狐狸一样知道怎样避免落入陷阱,也需像狮子一样能吓退狼群。只知道像狮子一样行事的君主未解为君之道。因此,谨慎的君主不能也不该在信守诺言对自己不利或使他作出承诺的条件不复存在之时仍坚守诺言。人们如都是善良之辈,这一忠告则毫无价值,但是,人们是邪恶的,并不遵守他们的承诺,你同样不必遵守与他们的承诺。没能信守诺言的合法理由对于君主总不难找到。完全可以举出无数这方面的现代例子,用以说明由于君主们的背信弃义许多条约和承诺化为了一纸空文。深得狐狸之技法的君主驾驭臣下,应付裕如。但具此城府者需知掩盖、伪装之术。人们一般头脑简单,专营当前之务,欲以此欺世者总不难找到愿受欺骗者。

关于最近一个例证,我不想秘而不宣。亚历山大六世没有别的打算,就是想着怎么欺骗人,可他总能找到受骗者。他总是信誓旦旦,没人能比他发誓更有效。他做出承诺时,愈是虔诚,愈是不会遵守。然而,他的欺骗行径总能如愿以偿,因为他太了解世人的心态了。

君主不必具备以上所言的各项美德,但他们必须让人觉得他们具有那些美德。我甚至敢大胆地说,具有那些美德并总是遵守承诺的君主会遭受毁灭,但是倒是让那些人觉得具有美德的君主,美德对他们真是有用。我的意思是君主应该让人觉得他富有同情心,值得信赖,很仁慈、诚实,笃信宗教,让人觉得他真是如此。但是他的头脑应训练有素,当不该展现这些美德之时,他会自如地转到相反方面去做。你必须明白这些:君主,特别是新君主,不能遵守所有规则,遵守这些规则一般认为是好人应该做的,因为他不得不为了巩固权力作出与信守承诺、仁慈、人道和虔诚相反的事。因此,他必须根据情势变化作出相应之事,正如我前面所言,如果可能,他尽量不要偏离道德上正确的轨道,但是在不得已之时,他应知道如何选择邪恶的手段。

那么,君主应小心翼翼,不符合以上所说五项美德的话,不要从他口中说出。对那些亲眼目睹和亲耳聆听的人,他应该让他们觉得他富有同情心、具有虔诚的信仰、诚实、仁慈和虔敬。没有比秀自己具有这些美德更有必要的了。人们一般多用眼睛而不是用手来作出判断;人人都能看到,但只有少数人才能理解。人人都能看到眼前之物,但只有少数人才能弄明白它到底是什么。这些少数人不敢反对多数人的意见,多数人的意见还得到具有权威的官方的证实。多数人的行为,尤其是君主的行为是无法诉诸法庭的,人们只根据结果作出判断。君主只需征服和保持他们的王位。他所用的手段总是被人认为是正当的,受到赞扬,因为凡人总被表象和事件的结果吸引,而世界又是由他们组成的。当多数人占据足够大的空间时,少数人则无容身之地。有一个当代的君主,这里不便提及他的名字,总是口不离和平与信仰,其实心里丝毫没有对这两样的敬意;如果他确实遵守了这两样,那么他的王位和荣誉也早丢失若干次了。4.Oration on the Dignity of Manby Pico DellaMirandola

I have read in the records of the Arabians,reverend Fathers,that Abdala the Saracen,when questioned as to what on this stage of the world,as it were,could be seen most worthy of wonder,replied:“There is nothing to be seen more wonderful than man.”In agreement with this opinion is the saying of Hermes Trismegistus:“A great miracle,Asclepius,is man.”But when I weighed the reason for these maxims,the many grounds for the excellence of human nature reported by many men failed to satisfy me—that man is the intermediary between creatures,the intimate of the gods,the king of the lower beings,by the acuteness of his senses,by the discernment of his reason,and by the light of his intelligence the interpreter of nature,the interval between fixed eternity and fleeting time,and(as the Persians say),the bond,nay,rather,the marriage song of the world,on David's(biblical king)testimony but little lower than the angels.Admittedly great though these reasons be,they are not the principal grounds,that is,those which may rightfully claim for themselves the privilege of the highest admiration.For why should we not admire more the angels themselves and the blessed choirs of heaven?At last it seems to me I have come to understand why man is the most fortunate of creatures and consequently worthy of all admiration and what precisely is that rank which is his lot in the universal chain of Being─a rank to be envied not only by brutes but even by the stars and by minds beyond this world.It is a matter past faith and a wondrous one.Why should it not be?For it is on this very account that man is rightly called and judged a great miracle and a wonderful creature indeed...

...God the Father,the supreme Architect,had already built this cosmic home we behold,the most sacred temple of His godhead,by the laws of His mysterious wisdom.The region above the heavens He had adorned with intelligence,the heavenly spheres He had quickened with eternal souls,and the excrementary and filthy parts of the lower world He had filled with a multitude of animals of every kind.But,when the work was finished,the Craftsman kept wishing that there were someone to ponder the plan of so great a work,to love its beauty,and to wonder at its vastness.Therefore,when everything was done(as Moses and Timaeus bear witness),He finally took thought concerning the creation of man.But there was not among His archetypes that from which He could fashion a new offspring,nor was there in His treasure houses anything which He might bestow on his new son as an inheritance,nor was there in the seats of all the world a place where the latter might sit to contemplate the universe.All was now complete;all things had been assigned to the highest,the middle,and the lowest orders.But in its final creation it was not the part of the Father's power to fail as though exhausted.It was not the part of His wisdom to waver in a needful matter through poverty of counsel.It was not the part of His kindly love that he who was to praise God's divine generosity in regard to others should be compelled to condemn it in regard to himself.

At last the best of artisans(God)ordained that the creature to whom He had been able to give nothing proper to himself should have joint possession of whatever had been peculiar to each of the different kinds of being.He therefore took man as a creature of indeterminate nature and,assigning him a place in the middle of the world,addressed him thus:“Neither a fixed abode nor a form that is thine alone nor any function peculiar to thyself have we given thee,Adam,to the end that according to thy longing and according to thy judgment thou mayest have and possess what abode,what form,and what functions thou thyself shalt desire.The nature of all other beings is limited and constrained within the bounds of laws prescribed by Us.Thou,constrained by no limits,in accordance with thine own free will,in whose hand We have placed thee,shalt ordain for thyself the limits of thy nature.We have set thee at the world's center that thou mayest from thence more easily observe whatever is in the world.We have made thee neither of heaven nor of earth,neither mortal nor immortal,so that with freedom of choice and with honor,as though the maker and molder of thyself,thou mayest fashion thyself in whatever shape thou shalt prefer.Thou shalt have the power to degenerate into the lower forms of life,which are brutish. Thou shalt have the power,out of thy soul's judgment,to be reborn into the higher forms,which are divine.”

O supreme generosity of God the Father,O highest and most marvelous felicity of man!To him it is granted to have whatever he chooses,to be whatever he wills.Beasts as soon as they are born(so says Lucilius)bring with them from their mother's womb all they will ever possess.Spiritual beings(angels),either from the beginning or soon thereafter,become what they are to be for ever and ever.On man when they came into life the Father conferred the seeds of all kinds and the germs of every way of life.Whatever seeds each man cultivates will grow to maturity and bear in him their own fruit.If they be vegetative,he will be like a plant.If sensitive,he will become brutish.If rational,he will grow into a heavenly being.If intellectual,he will be an angel and the son of God.And if,happy in the lot of no created thing,he withdraws into the center of his own unity,his spirit,made one with God,in the solitary darkness of God,who is set above all things,shall surpass them all.

关于人的尊严的演说(选译)

皮科·德拉·米兰多拉 著

尊敬的神父们,我曾在阿拉伯人的文献记录里读到这样一段话,当有人问一位撒拉森人阿卜杜拉,在世界这个舞台上,什么可以称得上神奇?他回答说,“没有什么比人更让我们感到神奇的了。”与这一意见相近的说法是埃及智慧女神赫尔墨斯·特里斯墨吉斯忒斯的话,她说,“阿斯克勒庇俄斯,人是太神奇了。”但是在我掂量这些精彩话语背后的原因时,许多关于人性美好的理由不能使我感到心悦诚服——有人说,由于人敏锐的感官、理性的洞察力,人是造物的调解者、神的密友、低等存在物的王,也有人说,凭借他的智慧,人在永恒与瞬间的间歇里成为自然的阐释者,还有波斯人说,人是纽带,不仅如此,以大卫王(《圣经》里的王)为证,他是世界的婚礼之歌,但比天使略微低一些。我承认,这些理由都很重要,但是,它们不是主要的理由,也可以说,它们都有成为人之所以让我们感到神奇的特权。我们为什么不更加艳羡天使和天堂里幸福的歌队呢?我最终似乎觉得,我渐渐明白了人为什么是造物中最幸运的、受到它们的敬仰,他在造物中的地位,即他在万物链里的排位——一个不仅受到野兽羡慕、也受到天体和超越这个世界的头脑的羡慕的位置。它不是一个信仰的问题,一件奇妙的事。它为什么不是呢?正是在这个意义上,人被称作或被认为是了不起的奇迹,一个神奇无比的生灵。

天父是无与伦比的设计师,他以源自他神秘莫测的智慧之律令建造了我们看到的这个宇宙之家,这是象征他威仪的最神圣的庙宇。苍穹之上,他赋之以灵性;天宇之内,他给予永恒之魂魄;下界遭弃之卑所,他布满各色动物。但是,大功告成之时,他总在渴望有人深思这浩繁工程背后之鸿猷,深爱其美妙,惊异其浩瀚。因此,当一切告竣(摩西和蒂迈欧目睹这一盛事),造物主最后考虑要创造人了。但他并不是从他的原型中选择塑造这一新后代,更没有从自己宝库里择取任何物件作为他的新生子的遗产,也没有在宇宙所有的座位中给他一席,使他安坐其上思考宇宙。一切创造现在完成了;一切东西都分别给予苍穹之上、天宇之内和下界的造物。但是,在这最后的创造中,他的力量不可能因仿佛是耗散而有些不济,他的智慧不可能因缺乏咨议而在当断之事上有些踌躇,他的博大之爱也不可能使本应颂扬神哺育万物之慷慨的人因自己所受宠爱不够转而责怪上帝。

这最优秀的工匠(上帝)后来决定,他不曾赋予适当特质的生物应该享有一切造物的特性。因此,他将人定义为特性待定之生物,并使他居于世界之中心位置,对他这样说,“亚当啊,我没有给你固定不变之地位、一成不变之形体,更没有给你任何属于你自己的特质,目的是让你根据自己的愿望与判断拥有你意欲获得的位置、形体和功能。其他所有生物的特性则都限定在我们设定的范围之内。我们将你置于世界之中心,以便你从那里更易于观察这周围的一切。我们将你造就成既不属于天上也不属于地下之生灵,既不属于必死之生命也不属于不朽之神祗,所以,凭借自由选择和荣誉,你仿佛是自己的创造者和塑造者,你尽可按照自己的愿望把自己塑造成自己意欲的形体。你有退化至低等生命形式的能力,变成野兽;你也有凭借灵魂的判断使自己重生、升入更高的生命形式的能力,成为一个天神。”

至慷慨之天父啊!人之至高、至神奇的福祉!他被赋予选择一切之权利,可以成为他意欲成为的人。野兽一旦出生(正如卢奇利乌斯所言),它们便从母胎里带来了它们将拥有的一切特质,它们从一开始或者稍后一点就成为了它们永远要成为的样子。在人出生之时,天父则在他心里播下所有种子,并催生了各种生活方式的萌芽。每个人精心护理他们的种子都能使之达到成熟,并结出自己的硕果。培育其植物性的种子,它必然成长为一株植物;培育其感官感受力的种子,它必成为一只动物;培育其理性的种子,他必成长为一个天神;培育其知性的种子,他必成为天使和上帝之子。他如对任何造物的命运都不满意,便可退回自我,在神之孤寂幽暗里,他早已与上帝融为一体的精神凌驾于万物之上,必将超越万物。

第三章 法国

第一节 历史文化概述

Section One A General Survey of French History andCulture

法国地处欧洲西北部,四周被大西洋、比利牛斯山、地中海、阿尔卑斯山和莱茵河包围,形成一个相对独立的“法兰西空间”,面积五十五万多平方公里,人口六千多万。法兰西是一个神奇的国度,曾产生了许多著名的文学家、艺术家、科学家和发明家,成为了一个重要的世界级大国,深刻影响着世界。

法兰西民族异常复杂,首先是由来自地中海的希腊人和中欧多瑙河流域的凯尔特人(Celt)组成。自公元前5世纪,凯尔特人开始向今天的法国迁徙,征服土著居民伊比利亚人和利古利亚人,并将他们同化。公元前4世纪,罗马人征服了法国,古称高卢,到公元前2世纪,彻底征服了山内高卢,恺撒曾出任高卢行省总督。古罗马人将这些凯尔特人统称为高卢人,并把他们的居住地称之为高卢。罗马人的征服使高卢人进入拉丁世界,拉丁语成了全高卢的正式官方语言,后逐渐演变为中世纪罗曼语,继而发展成现代法语。公元4世纪,“蛮族”开始迁徙高卢,“蛮族”是指日耳曼人,其中最主要是西哥特人,他们受到匈奴人的驱赶,逐渐西移。“蛮族”入侵法国产生了深远影响,从此,高卢境内存在使用拉丁语的早期居民和使用日耳曼语的哥特人,这些罗马化的高卢人与后来迁移来的“蛮族”西哥特人等逐渐融合形成了后来的法兰西民族。

一、独立的法兰西国家诞生与发展“蛮族”迁移到高卢,并建立了自己的王国,其中法兰克王国存在最久,也影响最大,曾产生了克洛维和查理大帝等雄主,建立了查理大帝帝国,也称查理曼帝国。在查理大帝的儿子路易时过早地将王国分给三个儿子,他们之间不断进行战争,直到843年8月,三兄弟签署《凡尔登条约》(The Treaty of Verdun),把帝国一分为三,即东法兰克王国,莱茵河以东地区,由日耳曼人路易统治,西法兰克王国,莱茵河以西,由查理统治;中法兰克王国,仅包括北意大利,以及东西法兰克王国之间的狭长地带,也就是后来的洛林,由洛泰尔统治。洛泰尔还承袭帝位,但对两个弟弟所统治的王国并无管辖权。这奠定了近代西欧德、法、意三大国的基本版图格局。《凡尔登条约》可以被认为是法兰西国家建立的标志,“秃头查理”是法兰西的开国之君。建国之后,法国面临着来自阿拉伯人、匈牙利人的入侵,尤其是来自诺曼人的持续入侵。“秃头查理”应付乏术,只好用重金换取侵略者退兵,在后继者“天真汉查理”手里,不得不于911年与诺曼人签订割让塞纳河下游沿岸土地,该地区改名为诺曼底,由此产生独立的诺曼底公国。这一时期,法王大多为平庸者,只有菲利普二世在位时不仅修筑了巴黎城市道路和城墙,还建造了闻名于世的卢浮宫,也奠定了巴黎作为首都的基本格局。在1337年至1453年间,英法之间爆发了“百年战争”,这两个隔海相望的国家由于彼此贵族之间通婚与争夺领地而产生了历史纠葛,最后以英国人退出占领的法国领土而结束战争。法王“国土的聚合者”路易十一最终完成了国家统一,基本奠定了今天法国版图的轮廓。更有历史意义的是,在巴黎方言基础之上的法兰西共同语——法语开始形成,开启了政治统一的民族国家。

路易十一不仅是“国土的聚合者”,而且也是绝对君主制的建立者。他执政期间,法国已明显地在向绝对君主制过渡,他以及他之后的三位君主,查理八世(1483—1498)、路易十二(1498—1515)和法兰西斯(1515—1547)统治期间,持续进行了65年的远征意大利战争,虽然未能将意大利并入法国版图,但作为法国人争霸的首次尝试,收复了加来(Calais),继续保持对梅斯(Metz)、土尔(Tours)和凡尔登(Verdun)三个主教管辖权,保障了东北边境的安全。加来收复意义更加深远,在国内彻底确立了君主专制制度,促进了资本主义工商业的迅速发展。持续三十多年的胡格诺战争,几乎摧毁整个法国。波旁王朝的开创者亨利四世不仅在战场上赢得胜利,而且也以放弃自己的新教信仰赢得人心,并能在胜利之后颁布具有划时代意义的“南特赦令”(The Edict of Nantes),开启了宗教宽容的先河。但是后来这位受国人普遍拥戴的亨利四世却被一位天主教徒刺杀身亡,年幼的路易十三继位,法国进入多事之秋,赖有一代伟大的政治家黎塞留富有智慧和远见的辅佐,不仅平息了国内多起叛乱、暗杀,而且巧妙利用欧洲诸国的矛盾冲突、纵横捭阖,最后在著名的“三十年战争”之后使法国成了最大的赢家,并在1648年10月24日签订了著名的《威斯特伐利亚和约》(Treaty of Westphalia),奠定了现代国际关系的原则与框架。路易十四5岁继位,在位72年,亲政54年,这位统治时间最长的雄心勃勃的君主对内极度强化王权,使之达到顶峰,对外不断扩张,与欧洲多国长期处于交战状态。由于威斯特伐利亚国际体系的制约,法国虽占领了一些邻国领土,如斯特拉斯堡等,

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