作者：圣才电子书
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戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解试读：
第1章 导 言
1.1 复习笔记
本章要点：
1．The definition and main branches of linguistics study
语言学的定义和研究的范围
2．Important distinctions in Linguistics
语言学的一些重要区分
3．The definition and the design features of language
语言的定义与识别特征
4．Functions of language
语言的功能
本章考点：
1．有关语言学的常考考点
语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2．有关语言的常考考点
语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。
本章内容索引：
I. The definition of linguistics
II. The scope of linguistics
1．Micro-linguistics
2．Macro-linguistics
III. Some important distinctions in linguistics
1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic
3．Speech vs. Writing
4．Langue vs. Parole
5．Competence vs. Performance
6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics
IV. The definition of language
V. The design features of language
1．Arbitrariness
2．Productivity
3．Duality
4．Displacement
5．Cultural Transmission
6．Interchangeability
VI. Functions of language
1．Main functions
2．Basic functions
3．Macrofuntions
I. The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。
它之所以是一种科学研究，是因为它是以对语言学数据的系统调研为基础，以语言结构的某种普遍理论为参照展开研究的。
II. The scope of linguistics（语言学的研究范畴）
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
作为整体而言的语言研究通常被称为普通语言学。
1．Micro-linguistics (from the core of linguistics) （微观语言学）
Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.
Phonology: the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
Morphology: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.
Syntax: the study of the rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.
Semantics: the study of meaning.
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use.
语音学：对语言交际中所使用的语音的研究。
音系学：对在交际中语音是如何被组合在一起、如何用来传递意义等问题的研究。
形态学：对于语言符号的排列方式和构词的组合方式的研究。
句法学：对支配构成语法所允许的句子的单词的组合的规则的研究。
语义学：对于意义的研究。
语用学：对具体语境中语言的意义的研究。
2．Macro-linguistics (from the relation with other fields)（宏观语言学）
Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.
Applied linguistics: The study of the applications of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly, it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
社会语言学：对语言的所有社会层面以及它与社会的关系的研究。
心理语言学：对语言及它与心理的关系的研究。
应用语言学：对应用语言解决实际问题的研究，如用于恢复言语等。从狭义上来讲，应用语言学指的是将语言学理论和原则应用于语言教学中，尤其是外语和第二语言教学。
III. Some important distinctions in linguistics（语言学中一些重要的区分）
1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive（描写式与规定式）
If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.
If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard!” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
如果一种语言学研究旨在对人们实际使用的语言进行描写和分析的话，它就是描写性的。
如果语言学研究的目的是为语言运用中的“正确的和标准的”言语行为确立规则的话，如告诉人们应该说什么、不应该说什么，那么它就是规定性的。
2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时性与历时性）
The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
对语言在历史上的某一时间点进行的描写就是共时性研究。
对语言随时间变化而变化进行的描写就是历时性研究。
语言的历时性研究是一种历史性研究；它研究语言在某一个时间段的历史演变。
3．Speech vs. Writing（言语与文字）
Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.
言语和文字是语言交际的两个主要媒介。现代语言学把口头语看作是人类语言的自然的或基本的媒体。
4．Langue vs. Parole（语言与言语）
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
索绪尔用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和言语上(表达的)的实际表现或语料。语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。言语是指语言的具体实现和运用。
5．Competence vs. Performance（语言能力与语言应用）
(1) Chomsky made the fundamental difference between competence and performance.
(2) A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
(3) Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
(4) Contrast between Saussure’s and Chomsky’s distinction
(1)乔姆斯基提出了语言能力和语言应用的根本区别。
(2)一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在认识称为他的语言能力。
(3)语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用。
(4)索绪尔与乔姆斯基的区分的异同【考点：比较Saussure和Chomsky的两对概念的异同】
①Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar.
②They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
①索绪尔的区分与乔姆斯基的非常相似。
②他们从根本上还是有区别的，因为索绪尔对语言采取的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的，而乔姆斯基则是从心理学的角度来看待语言的，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。
6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）
Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics symbolizes the beginning of Modern Linguistics. The differences between Traditional Grammar and. Modern Linguistics are:
(1) Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
(2) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
(3) Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
索绪尔《普通语言学》一书的出版标志着现代语言学的开端。传统语法与现代语言学的不同表现在：
(1)语言学是描写性的，而传统语法是规定性的。
(2)现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。
(3)现代语言学与传统语言学的区别还在于，它并不强迫语言进入一个以拉丁语为基础的框架。
IV. The definition of language（语言的定义）
(考点：名词解释)
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.
语言是人类用于口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类特有。
V. The design features of language（语言的识别特征）（本章重点部分）
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
语言的识别特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．Arbitrariness（任意性）
(1) Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
(2) But it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.
(1)语言是任意的。这意味着在意义与语音之间不存在逻辑联系。一个很好的例子就是在不同的语言中，指称同一物体有不同的语音这样的一个事实。
(2)但它并不是完全任意的;有些词的形成与事物本身是有联系的。象声词就是最好的例子。
2．Productivity（能产性或创造性）
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
语言是能产的或具有创造性的，因为它使得其使用者对新符号的构建和解释成为可能。这就是为什么他们能够造出和理解无限数量的句子——包括那些他们以前从未听说过的句子——的原因所在。
3．Duality（二重性）
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
语言是一个系统，它是由两套结构，或者两个层面构成的。在较低的或者基础的层面上，存在着一个语音结构，它们自身没有意义。但是，语言的语音系统可以组合和再组合成大量的有意义的单位，这些单位存在于语言系统的较高层面。
4．Displacement（移位性）
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.
语言可以用来指存在或不存在的东西，可以用来指过去、现在或将来的真实或想像的事物，或者用来指在遥远地方的东西。这种特性为说话人谈论范围广泛的事物提供了机会，而不受时空分隔的阻碍的影响。
5．Cultural Transmission（文化传递）
Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.
语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
▼6. Interchangeability（互换性）
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
VI. Functions of Language（语言的功能）
1．Main Functions（主要功能）
The three main functions of language are the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.
语言的三个最主要的功能是描述性功能，表现功能，以及社会功功能。
(1) Descriptive Function（描述功能）
It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.
描述功能用来表达被肯定或否定的信息，或已被证实的信息。
(2) Expressive Function（表达功能）
It is also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudice and values.
这种功能或被称为感情或态度功能，用来表达说话人的情绪，喜好，偏爱或态度。
(3) Social Function（社会功能）
It is also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
又被称做人际功能，用来建立或保持人与人之间的社会关系。
2．Basic Functions（基础功能）
Jakobson identifies six functions of language, namely, emotive, conative, referential, poetic, phatic communion, mentalingustic.
杰克森将语言功能划分为六大类，分别是情感，意动，指向，娱乐，寒暄，以及元语言。
3．Macrofunctions（宏观功能）
The macrofuntions of language are the ideational function, the interpersonal function and the textual function.
语言的宏观功能有三类：概念功能，人际功能和语篇功能。
(1) Ideational（概念功能）
It is to organize the speaker or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.
用来表达说话人或作者的实际或臆想经历。与描述功能相似，但要比描述功能广泛，因为它还包含了说话人的态度，评判和情感。
(2) Interpersonal（人际功能）
It is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.
用来表达建立和保持人际关系。
(3) Textual（语篇功能）
It is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.
用来保证口头或书面表达在语篇内连贯畅通，适用于表达的特殊场合。
1.2 课后习题详解
1．How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
2．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
3．In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
4．Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
5．For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?
6．How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
7．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
8．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
9．What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.
参考答案
1．Linguistics is a scientific study of language because it follows the methodology of other scientific study:
First of all, it is based on full and systematic collection and investigation of linguistic data, which display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.
Then linguists formulate some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.
2．Linguistics includes Micro-Linguistics and Macro-Linguistics.
A. Branches of Micro-Linguistics:
(1) Phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;
(2) Phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;
(3) Morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;
(4) Syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
(5) Semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;
(6) Pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.
B. Branches of Macro-Linguistics:
(1) Psycholinguistics: it studies language and its relation with psychology.
(2) Sociolinguistics: it studies all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
(3) Applied linguistics: it studies the applications of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly, it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
(4) Other branches，such as computational linguistics, neurolinguistics.
3．Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.
(1) Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
(2) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, or over-emphasize, the importance of the written documents especially the Greek or Roman Classical works, partly because of its permanence.
(3) Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based grammar framework.
4．In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believe that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
5．Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.
Modern linguistics gives the spoken language priority for some obvious reasons:
(1) From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.
(2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. People use much more oral language in daily life than using written language.
(3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his or her mother tongue, while writing is learned and taught later, when he or she goes to school.
(4) For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data, for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
6．①In Saussure’s definition, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
②Similar to Saussure’s distinction, Chomsky’s definition about competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
③Both the notion of langue and competence refer to the abstract and ideal nature of language within a human being, and parole and performance point to the actual language use. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance.
7．Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. The definition of language should include five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.
First of all, language is a system, i. e. , linguistic elements are arranged systematically rather than randomly.
Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.
Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound or speech.
Fourth, words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention.
Fifth, language is human-specific, i. e. , it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.
8．(1) Arbitrariness
This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. But it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.
(2) Productivity
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
(3) Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
(4) Displacement
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.
(5) Cultural Transmission
Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.
(6) Interchangeability
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
9．The three major functions of language are the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.
The descriptive function is also referred to as the cognitive, or referential function. It is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. E. g. “The disaster is the most serious one the country has ever seen.”
The expressive function is also called the emotive or attitudinal function. It supplied information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. The example is “I will never go there for the rest of my life.”
The social function is also referred to as the interpersonal function. It serves to establish and maintain social relations between people, e. g. “How are you doing recently?”
1.3 考研真题与典型题详解
I. Fill in the blanks.
1．The features that define our human languages can be called ______ features. (北二外2006研)【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
2．Linguistics is usually defined as the ______ study of language. (北二外2003研)【答案】scientific【解析】语言学通常被定义为研究科学的语言，或对语言的科学研究。
3．Language, broadly speaking, is a means of ______ communication.【答案】verbal【解析】语言是一种口头交流的手段。
4．In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed______【答案】productivity【解析】用有限表现无限就是能产性。
5．Linguistics is the scientific study of______.【答案】language【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。
6．Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.【答案】descriptive【解析】发现语言的规律而不是规定就是描述性。
7．One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing.【答案】speech【解析】语言学研究是以口头为基础而不是书面。
8．The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研)
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