作者：黄敏
出版社：复旦大学出版社
格式: AZW3, DOCX, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, TXT
国际经济学(双语)试读：
前言
近年来，随着我国高等教育国际化的不断推进，双语教学在各高校得到大力推广。作为经济学科的核心课程，越来越多的高校都对《国际经济学》采取双语教学。在双语教学中，大家的一个共同感受就是合适的教材难寻。目前国内双语教材的出版主要有两种形式：一是将国外的英文原版教材加以影印，二是对国外的英文教材加以删减改编。
但总的来说，国外教材使用起来并不便当，主要表现在：一是篇幅过长，对书中出现的所有知识点都从ABC开始介绍，大量的案例也挤占了宝贵的篇幅资源。而在国内，学生学习《国际经济学》之前都已经过《西方经济学》的熏陶，完全可以略去这部分内容或从简介绍。另外，现在网络资源如此发达，师生搜寻新鲜案例非常便捷，课程网站的广泛建设也为案例提供了丰富而及时的补充。二是难易程度与国内教学需要不匹配。供本科使用的国外教材大多属初级程度，而国内汉语教材则属初级偏上中级程度。这就造成了为双语教学而牺牲课程难度要求的局面，使学生获得的课程专业知识打了折扣。三是国外教材内容战线拉得过长，不适合国内的教学安排。国内双语专业课程大多安排在一学期完成，每周三课时，这就需要教材内容要精，使学生在有限的学时中获得最大的收获。
正是基于这样的思考，促使我们尝试自己编写双语教材。这本《国际经济学》双语教材有这样三个特点：一是融中外教材之长，定位中高年级本科生。在教材难度要求和通俗易读间进行了较好的把握，既保证易于理解又使教材保持一定的深度。二是偏重理论分析推演，简化知识现象介绍。《国际经济学》的精髓在于它对理论的演绎、对思维的训练，而不应只是对结论的归纳、对现象的介绍。这在什么知识都可轻松百度、谷歌一下的当今显得尤为重要。掌握了理论的演绎过程，才能了解它的适用范围和局限，才不至于在眼花缭乱的理论丛林中无所适从或滥用误用。而经济思维的训练将会使人一生受益。三是读者友好。本书在编写过程中充分考虑易用性，在每章篇首列出本章将出现的专业词汇，给出中文释义，方便读者学习。在一些逻辑性较强、内容较难的章节，给出了逻辑推演图或说明，帮助读者理解。
本书在章节安排上，遵从所介绍理论的内在逻辑。第一至第五章为国际贸易部分，具体为古典贸易理论、新古典贸易理论、现代贸易理论、关税与非关税壁垒、区域贸易安排。逻辑顺序为推崇自由贸易的贸易理论、现实中的贸易保护、人们所做的折中努力。第六至第十章为国际金融部分，具体为国际收支与汇率、汇率决定理论、国际收支调节、开放经济中的宏观经济政策、宏观经济政策的国际传导与协调。在第六章中对后面涉及的国际金融知识进行介绍，然后按汇率理论、国际收支理论、宏观政策效果、国际传导协调与合作进行推进。第十一章为国际要素流动与跨国公司，介绍涉及国际贸易的劳动要素流动、涉及国际金融的资本要素流动及其集中体现——跨国公司。
本书的编者均为长期从事《国际经济学》双语教学的教师，具体为：董理（第一、四章）、周扬波（第二章）、陶凌云（第三章）、吕健（第五、十一章）、王艳娟（第六章）、黄敏（第七、九、十章）、刘霞（第八章）。全书编写提纲由黄敏拟定，初稿写成后由董理对国际贸易部分进行了统稿，吕健对其余部分进行了统稿，最后由黄敏总撰、定稿。
在本书编写过程中，我们借鉴了国内外的优秀教材和著作；另外，复旦大学出版社给予了大力支持，在此一并表示感谢。限于编者水平，书中纰漏之处敬请专家和读者批评指正。编者2010年12月于上海Chapter 1Classical Theories of International TradeKey Concepts and Terms
Mercantilism 重商主义
Tariff 关税
Quota 配额
Absolute Advantage 绝对优势
Comparative Advantage 相对优势
Labor Theory of Value 劳动价值论
Specialization 专业化
Complete Specialization 完全专业化
Partial Specialization 部分专业化
Opportunity Cost 机会成本
Constant Opportunity Cost 不变机会成本
Increasing Opportunity Cost 递增机会成本
Marginal Rate of Transformation (MRT) 边际转换率
Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) 生产可能性边界
Reciprocal Demand 相互需求
Trade Triangle 贸易三角形
Offer Curve 提供曲线
Terms of Trade 贸易条件
Income Terms of Trade 收入贸易条件
Single Factoral Terms of Trade 单要素贸易条件
Double Factoral Terms of Trade 双要素贸易条件
Why does international trade occur and what are its effects on economy? To find the answers to these doubts rooted in everybody' s mind, economists have evolved a vast range of theories. Among them, classical theories based on the labor theory of value provide basic explanations.1.1Mercantilism
Mercantilism refers to the collections of economic thoughts that came into existence in Europe during the period from 1500 to 1750. It can not be classified as a formal school of thought, but rather as a collection of similar attitudes toward domestic economic activities and the role of international trade that tended to dominate economic thinking and policies during this period.
According to the mercantilists, the central question was how a country could regulate its domestic and international affairs so as to promote its own interests. The solution lay in a strong foreign trade sector. If a country could achieve a favorable trade balance, it would receive payments from the rest of the world in the form of gold and silver. Such revenues would contribute to an increase in spending and thus a rise in domestic output and employment. To promote a favorable trade balance, the mercantilists advocated government regulation of trade. Tariffs, quotas, and other commercial policies were proposed by the mercantilists to decrease imports in order to protect the country' s trade position.
By the eighteenth century, the economic policies of the mercantilists were under strong attack. It was believed that a favorable trade balance was possible only in the short run, for over time it would automatically be eliminated. Mercantilist policies would provide at best only short-term economic advantages.
The mercantilists were also attacked for their static view of the world economy. To the mercantilist, the world' s economic pie was of a constant size. This meant that one country' s gains from trade came at the expense of its trading partners; not all countries could simultaneously enjoy the benefits of international trade. This view was challenged with the publication in 1776 of Adam Smith' s Wealth of Nations. According to Smith, the world' s economic pie is not of a fixed size. International trade permits countries to take advantage of specialization and the division of labor, which increases the general level of productivity within a country and thus increases the world output. Smith' s dynamic view of trade suggested that both trading partners could simultaneously enjoy higher level of production and consumption with free trade.1.2Trade Based on Absolute Advantage: Adam Smith
Adam Smith was a leading advocator of free trade on the grounds that it promoted the international division of labor. With free trade, countries could concentrate their production on the goods they could produce most cheaply and enjoy all the consequent benefits from the labor division.
The theory of absolute advantage accepts the idea that cost differences govern the international movement of goods and seeks to explain why costs differ among countries. It maintains that productivities of factor inputs represent the major determinant of production cost. Such productivities are based on natural and acquired advantages. Natural advantages include factors relating to climate, soil, and mineral wealth, whereas acquired advantages include special skills and techniques. Given a natural or acquired advantage in the production of a good, a country would produce that good at lower cost, becoming more competitive than its trading partner. The theory thus views the determination of competitiveness from the supply side of the market.
Here, the concept of cost is founded upon the labor theory of value, which assumes that within each country, (1) labor is the only factor of production and is homogeneous (of one quality) and (2) the cost or price of a good depends exclusively upon the amount of labor required to produce it. For example, if China uses less labor to manufacture a yard of cloth than the United States, Chinese production cost will be lower.
The theory of absolute advantage claims that in a 2-country,2-product world, international specialization and trade will be beneficial when one country has an absolute cost advantage (that is, uses less labor to produce a unit of output) in one good and the other country has an absolute cost advantage in the other good. For the world to benefit from specialization, each country must have a good that it is absolutely more efficient in producing than its trading partner. A country will import those goods in which it has an absolute cost disadvantage and will export those goods in which it has an absolute cost advantage.
An arithmetic example helps illustrate the principle of absolute advantage. Referring to Table 1-1, suppose a worker in the United Kingdom can produce 5 sets of iPad or 20 yards of cloth in an hour, while a U.S. worker can produce 15 sets of iPad or 10 yards of cloth in an hour. Clearly, the United States has an absolute advantage in iPad production; its iPad workers' productivity (output per worker hour) is higher than that of the United Kingdom, which leads to lower costs (less labor required to produce a set of iPad). In like manner, the United Kingdom has an absolute advantage in cloth production.Table 1-1 A Case of Absolute Advantage
According to the theory of absolute advantage, each country benefits by specializing in and exporting the good that it produces at a lower cost than the other country, while importing the good that it produces at a higher cost. Because the world uses its resources more efficiently as the result of specializing, there occurs an increase in the world output which in turn is distributed to the two countries through the trade.1.3Trade Based on Comparative Advantage: David Ricardo
According to the theory of absolute advantage, mutually beneficial trade requires each country to be the least-cost producer of at least one good that it can export to its trading partner. But what if a country is more efficient than its trading partner in the production of all goods? To answer this question, David Ricardo (1772-1823) developed a principle to show that mutually beneficial trade can occur even when one country is absolutely more efficient in the production of all goods.
The theory of comparative advantage also emphasizes the supply side of the market. It believes the immediate basis for trade stems from comparative (relative) cost differences between countries. Indeed, countries often develop comparative advantages, as shown in Table 1-2.
According to the theory of comparative advantage, even if a country has an absolute cost disadvantage in the production of both goods, a basis for mutually beneficial trade may still exist. The more efficient country should specialize in and export that good in which it is relatively more efficient (where its absolute advantage is bigger). The less efficient country should specialize in and export the good in which it is relatively less inefficient (where its absolute disadvantage is smaller).1.3.1AnExampleofComparativeAdvantage
To demonstrate the principle of comparative advantage, let us formulate a simplified model. We assume: (1) there are only two countries with fixed level of technology in the world; (2) each country owns only one input — labor-, which is fixed endowed and homogenous and can move across industries but cannot flow across countries; (3) each country produces two commodities;(4) perfect competition and free trade prevail in markets.
To see how comparative advantage works, refer to Table 1-2, where the data shows one U.S. worker can produce either 5 sets of iPad or 15 yards of cloth per hour (first row), and one Chinese worker can produce 1 set of iPad or 5 yards of cloth per hour(second row). Compare the two countries in Table 1-2, notice that the U.S. has an absolute advantage in the production of both iPad and cloth. If you were using the concept of absolute advantage alone as the basis for trade, no trade would occur between the U. S. and China. However, the theory of comparative advantage shows that mutually beneficial trade can still occur between the two countries.Table 1-2 A Case of Comparative Advantage
As Table 1-2 indicates, U. S. labor has a 5-to-1 absolute advantage in the production of iPad. In other words, U.S. workers can produce five iPads with the input with which Chinese worker can produce one iPad. U.S. labor also has a 15-to-5 or 3-to-1 absolute advantage in the production of cloth. China has an absolute disadvantage in the production of iPad and cloth. That is, U. S. workers can produce both more iPads and more yards of cloth than workers in China.
In this example, the U.S. has a greater absolute advantage in producing iPad than in producing cloth. However, China' s absolute disadvantage is smaller in producing cloth than in producing iPad. Using Ricardo' s logic, the U. S. has a comparative advantage in iPad because its degree of absolute advantage is larger and a comparative disadvantage in cloth because its absolute advantage in cloth is smaller. Similarly, China has a comparative advantage in cloth and a comparative disadvantage in iPad. Comparative advantage, as opposed to absolute advantage, is a relative relationship.1.3.2 Gains from Specialization and Trade with Comparative Advantage
Now, assume trade opens up between the U.S. and China. The U.S. could benefit from importing cloth from and exporting iPads to China. China could benefit from importing iPads from and exporting cloth to the U.S. For each worker that the U.S. transfers from cloth production to iPad production, the U.S. output of iPads increases by 5 and U. S. cloth production falls by 15 yards. As China transfers 3 workers from iPad production to cloth production, its cloth production increases by 15 yards and its iPad production falls by 3. In this case, there is a net increase in the world output, because cloth production remains constant and iPad production increases by 2. The result is shown in Table 1-3.Table 1-3 The Change in the World Output Resulting from Specialization
Again, the gain from production and trade is the increase in the world output that results from each country specializing in its production according to its comparative advantage. This increase in output would be allocated between the two countries through the process of international trade. How this increase in output is exactly distributed between them is the question we will answer later.1.3.3 Comparative Advantage in Money Terms
Comparative advantage can be shown in terms of money prices. Refer to the comparative advantage example of Table 1-2. It assumes that labor is the only input and is homogeneous. Recall that (1) the United States has an absolute advantage in the production of both iPad and cloth; and(2) the United States has a comparative advantage in iPad production, while China has a comparative advantage in cloth production. See Table 1-4. Even though China is absolutely less efficient in producing both goods, it will export cloth (the product of its comparative advantage) when its money wages are so much lower than those of the United States that it is cheaper to make cloth in China. Let us see how this works.Table 1-4 Comparative Advantage in Money Prices
Suppose the wage rate is $20 per hour in the United States, as indicated in Table 1-4. If U.S. workers can produce 15 yards of cloth in an hour, the average cost of producing a yard of cloth is $1.33 ( $20/15 yards= $1.33 per yard). Similarly, the average cost of producing a set of iPad in the United States is $4. Because markets are assumed to be perfectly competitive, in the long run a product' s price equals its average cost of production. The prices of iPad and cloth produced in the United States are shown in Table 1-4.
Suppose now that the wage rate is $5 per hour in China. Thus, the average cost (price) of producing a yard of cloth in China is $1 ( $5/5 yards= $1 per yard), and the average cost (price) of producing a set of iPad is $5. These prices are also shown in Table 1-4.
Compare the costs of producing these products in the United States with those in China, and we can find that China has lower costs in cloth production but higher costs in iPad production. China thus has a comparative advantage in cloth.
We conclude that even though China is not as efficient as the United States in the production of cloth, its lower wage rate in terms of dollars compensates for its inefficiency. At this wage rate, China' s average cost in dollars of producing cloth is less than the U.S. average cost. With perfectly competitive markets, China' s selling price of cloth is lower than its U.S. selling price, and China exports cloth to the United States.1.4Comparative Advantage and Opportunity Cost
Our explanation of comparative advantage between the U.S. and China in the previous section is based on the assumption that labor is homogeneous and is the only factor used to produce cloth and iPads. Without this assumption, comparing the productivity of U. S. workers with that of China' s workers would not be possible. Because labor is actually not homogeneous between countries and is just one of several factors of production, we must develop a more general theory beyond the labor theory of value.
Opportunity Cost
The concept of opportunity cost enables us to develop a general theory of comparative advantage that takes into account all factors of production. In this context, opportunity cost is the quantity of one good that must be given up to release enough resources to produce one more unit of another good. Return to Table 1-2 and consider what would happen if the U.S. transfers one worker from iPad production to cloth production. In this case, the U.S. would add 15 yards of cloth but would have to abandon 5 iPads. The opportunity cost of producing 1 yard of cloth is 1/3 iPad. In the U.S., the quantity of one good that it must abandon to produce each additional unit of another good, i. e. the marginal rate of transformation (MRT), is 1 iPad for 3 yards of cloth or 1 yard of cloth for 1/3 iPad.
As for China, the opportunity cost of 1 iPad is 5 yards of cloth, or 1 yard of cloth costs 1/5 iPad. This means that in China the marginal rate of transformation for the two goods is 1 iPad for 5 yards of cloth. Notice that the marginal rate of transformation of the U.S. is different from that of China. The U.S. can exchange 1 iPad for 3 yards of cloth while China can exchange 1 iPad for 5 yards of cloth.
Comparing the different marginal rates of transformation of both countries, the U.S. opportunity cost is lower for iPad. The U.S. gives up 3 yards of cloth to produce 1 iPad while China has to give up 5 yards of cloth to produce 1 iPad. China' s opportunity cost is lower for cloth. China gives up only 1/5 iPad to produce 1 yard of cloth while the U.S. has to give up 1/3 iPad to produce 1 yard of cloth.
Although the U.S. has an absolute advantage in the production of both iPads and cloth, it has a comparative advantage in the production of iPad. While China has an absolute disadvantage in the production of both iPad and cloth, it has a comparative advantage in the production of cloth. Because the opportunity cost of the same good differs with countries, both countries can benefit from trade. Traders can buy cloth in China and ship it to the U.S. to sell for profits. In the same way, traders can buy iPads in the U.S. and ship them to China to sell for profits there.1.4.1 Gains from Specialization and Trade with Opportunity Costs
In Table 1-2, notice that there are limits to mutually beneficial transaction. No one in the U.S. would pay more than 1/3 iPad for a yard of cloth. Why would anyone pay more for an imported good if the domestic price is lower? Similarly, no one in China would pay more than 5 yards of cloth to obtain an iPad. For profitable transaction to take place, the price of iPad relative to the price of cloth would have to be between 1 iPad for 3 yards of cloth and 1 iPad for 5 yards of cloth.
Given the limits of 1 iPad for 3 yards of cloth and 1 iPad for 5 yards of cloth, we assume that the exchange ratio for trade between the two countries is 1 iPad for 4 yards of cloth. With this exchange ratio, we can examine Table 1-5 to determine the gains from trade. The first row of the table shows each country' s maximum production of the two goods when all resources of a country are used to produce the good in which it has a comparative advantage. For example, the U. S. is capable of producing 100 iPads if all of its resources are devoted to the production of iPad. Similarly, China could produce 300 yards of cloth if all of its resources are devoted to the production of cloth.Table 1-5 Production and Consumption with and without Trade
Assume that the U.S. consumes 50 iPads and exports 50 iPads to China. At the exchange ratio of 1 iPad for 4 yards of cloth, the U.S. would import 200 yards of cloth from China. Looking at this exchange from the other perspective, China would export the 200 yards of cloth and importing the 50 iPads. These exchanges are identified as consumption with trade in the second row of Table 1-5.
The gains from specialization and trade are what each country can consume with trade beyond what it can consume under conditions of autarky, or without trade. If both countries decide not to trade with each other, how much of each good could they consume? The U.S.
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