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Scientific American Supplement, No. 365, December 30, 1882试读：
NEW YORK, DECEMBER 30, 1882.
Scientific American Supplement．Vol．XIV., No.365.
Scientific American established 1845
Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS OR AERATED BEVERAGES
The apparatus employed at present for making gaseous beverages are divided into two classes—intermittent apparatus based on chemical compression, and continuous ones based on mechanical compression.
The first are simple in appearance and occupy small space, but their use is attended with too great inconveniences and losses to allow them to be employed in cases where the manufacture is of any extent, so the continuous apparatus are more and more preferred by those engaged in the industry.
Continuous apparatus, however, other than those that we now propose to occupy ourselves with, are not without some defects, for the gas is produced in them intermittingly and at intervals, and more rapidly than it is used, thus necessitating the use of a gasometer, numerous and large washers, complicated piping, and, besides, of an acid cock.
To get rid of such drawbacks, it became necessary to seek a means of rendering the production of the gas continuous, and of regulating it automatically without the aid of the operator．Mr．Mondollot has obtained such a result through a happy modification of the primitive system of the English engineer Bramah．He preserves the suction and force pump but, while applying it to the same uses, he likewise employs it, by the aid of a special arrangement, so as to distribute the sulphuric acid automatically over the chalk in the generator, and to thus obtain a regular and continuous disengagement of carbonic acid gas．The dangers and difficulties in the maneuver of an acid cock are obviated, the gasometer and its cumbersome accessories are dispensed with, and the purification is more certain, owing to the regularity with which the gas traverses the washers.APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES.
In the accompanying plate we have figured three types of these apparatus．The first that we shall describe is arranged for the use of bicarbonate of soda．This apparatus consists (1) of a generator, C D, (2) of a double washer G G, (3) of a suction pump, P, and (4) of a saturator, S (See Figs 1 to 9).
The Generator.—This consists of a cylindrical leaden receptacle, D, on the bottom of which rests a leaden bell containing apertures, c, at its base．A partition, c, into which is screwed a leaden tube, C, containing apertures divides the interior of the bell into two compartments．The upper of these latter is surmounted by a mouth, B, closed by a clamp, and through which the bicarbonate of soda is introduced．A definite quantity of water and sulphuric acid having been poured into the receptacle, D, a level tends to take place between the latter and the bell, C, the liquid passing through the apertures．But the acidulated water, coming in contact with the soda, sets free carbonic acid gas, which, having no exit, forces the water back and stops the production of gas until the apparatus is set in motion．At this moment, the suction of the pump causes a new inflow of acidulated water upon the soda, from whence another disengagement of gas, and then a momentary forcing of the water, whose level thus alternately rises and falls and causes a continuous production of gas proportionate with the suction of the pump.
The consumption of soda and acid is about 2 kilogrammes each for charging 100 siphons or 150 bottles．The bicarbonate is known to be used up when the liquid in the generator is seen to descend to the bottom of the water level, n, fixed to the vessel, D.
The Washer (Figs 1 and 4)—The gas, on leaving the generator, enters the washer through a bent copper pipe, R．The washer is formed of two ovoid glass flasks G G, mounted on a bronze piece, L, to which they are fixed by screw rings, l, of the same metal．The two flasks, G G, communicate with each other only through the tinned-copper tube q, which is held in the mounting q, of the same metal．This latter is screwed into the piece, L, and contains numerous apertures, through which the gas coming in from the pipe, R, passes to reach the upper flask, G．The gas is washed by bubbling up through water that has been introduced through the cock, R．After it has traversed both flasks, it escapes through the copper pipe, p, into which it is sucked by the pump, P.
The Pump (Figs 1, 5 and 6)—This consists of a cylindrical chamber, P, of bronze, bolted to a bracket on the frame, and cast in a piece, with the suction valve chamber, P, in which the valve, p, plays．2It is surmounted by the distributing valve chamber P．This latter is 3held by means of two nuts screwed on to the extremity of the rods, p, connected with the shell, E, of the distributing-cock, E．In the shell, E, terminates, on one side, the pipe, p, through which enters the gas from the washer, and, on the other, the pipe i, that communicates with a feed-reservoir not shown in the cuts．The cock E, permits of the simultaneous regulation of the entrance of the gas and water．Its position is shown by an index e, passing over a graduated dial, e．2From the distributing valve chamber, P the pipe, s, leads the mixture of water and gas under pressure into
The Saturator, S (Figs 1, 7 and 9)—This consists of a large copper vessel, s, affixed to the top of the frame through the intermedium of a bronze collar h, and a self closing bottom H．This latter is provided with two pipes, one of which, s, leads the mixture of water and carbonic acid forced by the pump, and the other, b, communicates with the siphons or bottles to be filled．The pipe, b, is not affixed directly to the bottom, but is connected therewith through the intermedium of a cock, r．The object of the broken form of this pipe is to cause the pressure to act according to the axis of the screw, 2r, which is maneuvered by the key, r.
The water under pressure, having been forced into the vessel, S, is submitted therein to an agitation that allows it to dissolve a larger quantity of gas．Such agitation is produced by two pairs of paddles, J J, mounted at the extremity of an axle actuated by the wheel, A, through the intermedium of gearings, g and g.
The course of the operation in the saturator may be followed by an inspection of the water level, n, seen at the front and side in Figs.2 and 3．This apparatus, in which the pressure reaches 4 to 6 atmospheres in the manufacture of Seltzer water or gaseous lemonade in bottles, and from 10 to 12 atmospheres in that of Seltzer water in siphons, is provided also with a pressure gauge, m, and a 2safety valve, both screwed, as is also the tube, n, into a sphere, S, on the top of the saturator.
Apparatus for Using Carbonate of Lime (Figs 2, 3, and 10)—When chalk is acted upon by sulphuric acid, there is formed an insoluble sulphate which, by covering the chalk, prevents the action of the acid from continuing if care be not taken to constantly agitate the materials．This has led to a change in the arrangement of the generator in the apparatus designed for the use of chalk.
It consists in this case of a leaden vessel, D, having a hemispherical bottom set into a cylindrical cast iron base, K, and of an agitator similar to that shown in Fig.11, for keeping the chalk in suspension in the water．These latter materials are introduced through the mouth, B (Fig.3)．Then a special receptacle, C, of lead, shown in detail in Fig.10, and the cock, c, of which is kept closed, is filled with sulphuric acid．The acid is not introduced directly into the vessel, C, but is poured into the cylinder, C, whose sides contain numerous apertures which prevent foreign materials from passing into the siphon tube c, and obstructing it.
To put the apparatus in operation, the acid cock, c, is opened and the wheel, A, is turned, thus setting in motion both the pump piston, P, and the agitator, within S and D．Then the play of the pump produces a suction in the washers and from thence in the generator and causes the acid in the vessel, C, to flow into the generator through the leaden siphon tubes, c．Coming in contact with the chalk in suspension, the acid produces a disengagement of gas which soon establishes sufficient pressure to stop the flow of the acid and drive it back into the siphon tube．The play of the pump continuing, a new suction takes place and consequently a momentary flow of acid and a new disengagement of gas．Thus the production of the latter is continuous, and is regulated by the very action of the pump, without the operator having to maneuver an acid-cock．The latter he only has to open when he sets the apparatus in operation, and to close it when he stops it.
The arrangement of the washer is the same as in the preceding apparatus, save that a larger cylindrical copper reservoir, G', is substituted for the lower flask．The pump and saturator offer nothing peculiar.
A bent tube, u, which communicates with the generator, D, on one side, and with a cylindrical tube, V, ending in a glass vessel on the other, serves as a safety-valve for both the generator and the acid vessel.
The consumption of chalk is about 2.5 kilogrammes, and the same of acid, for charging 100 siphons or 150 bottles．The apparatus shown in the figure is capable of charging 600 siphons or 900 bottles per day.
An Apparatus Completely Mechanical in Operation (Fig.11).—This apparatus consists of two very distinct parts．The saturator, pump, and driving shaft are supported by a hollow base, in whose interior are placed a copper washer and the water-inlet controlled by a float-cock．This part of the apparatus is not shown in the plate．The generator, partially shown in Fig.11, is placed on a base of its own, and is connected by a pipe with the rest of the apparatus．It consists of two similar generators, D, made of copper lined with lead, and working alternately, so as to avoid all stoppages in the manufacture when the materials are being renewed．The pipe, d, connecting the two parts of the apparatus forks so as to lead the gas from one or the other of the generators, whence it passes into the copper washer within the base, then into the glass indicating washer, and then to the pump which forces it into the saturator.
Each of the generators communicates by special pipes, a, with a single safety vessel, V, that operates the same as in the preceding apparatus．The agitator, Q, is of bronze, and is curved as shown in Fig.11.
The production of this type of apparatus is dependent upon the number of siphons that can be filled by a siphon filler working without interruption.—Machines, Outils et Appareils.
DETECTION AND ESTIMATION OF FUSEL OIL
Until quite recently we have had no accurate method for the determination of fusel oil in alcohol or brandy．In 1837 Meurer suggested a solution of one part of silver nitrate in nine parts of water as a reagent for its detection, stating that when added to alcohol containing fusel oil, a reddish brown color is produced, and in case large quantities are present, a dark brown precipitate is formed．It was soon found, however, that other substances than amyl alcohol produce brown colored solutions with silver nitrate; and Bouvierobserved that on adding potassium iodide to alcohol containing fusel oil, the solution is colored yellow, from the decomposition of the iodide．Subsequently Böttgerproved that potassium iodide is not decomposed by pure amyl alcohol, and that the decomposition is due to the presence of acids contained in fusel oil．More accurate results are obtained by using a very dilute solution of potassium permanganate, which is decomposed by amyl alcohol much more rapidly than by ethyl alcohol.
Deprédetermines fusel oil by oxidizing a definite quantity of the alcohol in a closed vessel with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid．after removal of excess of the oxidizing reagents, the organic acids are distilled, and, by repeated fractional distillation, the acetic acid is separated as completely as possible．The remaining acids are saturated with barium hydroxide, and the salts analyzed; a difference between the percentage of barium found and that of barium in barium acetate proves the presence of fusel oil, and the amount of difference gives some idea of its quantity．Betellidilutes 5 c.c．of the alcohol to be tested with 6 to 7 volumes of water, and adds 15 to 20 drops of chloroform and shakes thoroughly．If fusel oil is present, its odor may be detected by evaporating the chloroform; or, by treatment with sulphuric acid and sodium acetate, the ether is obtained, which can be readily recognized．Jorissentests for fusel oil by adding 10 drops of colorless aniline and 2 to 3 drops of hydrochloric acid to 10 c.c．of the alcohol．In the presence of fusel oil a red color is produced within a short time, which can be detected when not more than 0.1 per cent．is present．But Foerster objects to this method because he finds the color to be due to the presence of furfurol, and that pure amyl alcohol gives no color with aniline and hydrochloric acid.
Hageretects fusel oil as follows: If the spirit contains more than 60 per cent．of alcohol, it is diluted with an equal volume of water and some glycerine added, pieces of filter paper are then saturated with the liquid and exposed to the After the evaporation of the alcohol, the odor of the fusel oil can be readily detected．For the quantitative determination he distills 100 c.c．of the alcohol in a flask of 150 to 200 c.c．capacity connected with a condenser, and so arranged that the apparatus does not extend more than 20 cm．above the water bath．This arrangement prevents the fusel oil from passing over．If the alcohol is stronger than 70 per cent., and the height of the distillation apparatus is not more than 17 cm., the residue in the flask may be weighed as fusel oil．With a weaker alcohol, or an apparatus which projects further out of the water bath, the residual fusel oil is mixed with water．It can, however, be separated by adding strong alcohol and redistilling, or by treating with ether, which dissolves the amyl alcohol, and distilling, the temperature being raised finally to 60°.
Marquardt,like Betelli, extracts the fusel oil from alcohol by means of chloroform, and by oxidation converts it into valeric acid．From the quantity of barium valerate found he calculates the amount of amyl alcohol present in the original solution; 150 c.c．of the spirit, which has been diluted so as to contain 12 to 15 per cent．of alcohol, are shaken up thoroughly with 50 c.c．of chloroform, the aqueous layer drawn off, and shaken with a fresh portion of chloroform．This treatment is repeated several times．The extracts are then united, and washed repeatedly with water．The chloroform, which is now free from alcohol and contains all the fusel oil, is treated with a solution of 5 grammes of potassium bichromate in 30 grammes of water and 2 grammes of sulphuric acid, and then heated in a closed flask for six hours on a water bath at 85°．The contents of the flask are then distilled, the distillate saturated with barium carbonate, and the chloroform distilled; the residue is evaporated to a small volume, the excess of barium carbonate filtered off, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness and weighed．The residue is dissolved in water, a few drops of nitric acid added, and the solution divided into two portions．In the first portion the barium is determined; in the second the barium chloride．The total per cent．of barium minus that of barium chloride gives the amount present as barium valerate, from which is calculated the per cent．of amyl alcohol．By this process the author has determined one part of fusel oil in ten thousand of alcohol．To detect very minute quantities of fusel oil, the chloroform extracts are treated with several drops of sulphuric acid and enough potassium permanganate to keep the solution red for twenty-four hours．If allowed to stand in a test tube, the odor of valeric aldehyde will first be noticed, then that of amyl valerate, and lastly that of valeric acid.—Amer．Chem．Journal.
ON SILICON
It is known that platinum heated in a forge fire, in contact with carbon, becomes fusible．Boussingault has shown that this is due to the formation of a silicide of platinum by means of the reduction of the silica of the carbon by the metal．MM．P．Schützenberger and A．Colson have produced the same phenomenon by heating to white heat a slip of platinum in the center of a thick layer of lampblack free from silica.
The increase in weight of the metal and the augmentation of its fusibility were found to be due, in this case also, to a combination with silicon．As the silicon could not come directly from the carbon which surrounded the platinum, MM．Schützenberger and Colson have endeavored to discover under what form it could pass from the walls of the crucible through a layer of lampblack several centimeters in thickness, in spite of a volatility amounting to almost nothing under the conditions of the experiment．They describe the following experiments as serving to throw some light upon the question:
1．A thin slip of platinum rolled in a spiral is placed in a small crucible of retort carbon closed by a turned cover of the same material．This is placed in a second larger crucible of refractory clay, and the intervening space filled with lampblack tightly packed．The whole is then heated to white heat for an hour and a half in a good wind furnace．After cooling, the platinum is generally found to have been fused into a button, with a marked increase in weight due to taking up silicon, which has penetrated in the form of vapor through the walls of the interior crucible.
2．If, in the preceding experiment, the lampblack be replaced by a mixture of lampblack and rutile in fine powder, the slip of platinum remains absolutely intact, and does not change in weight．Thus the titaniferous packing recommended by Sainte-Claire Deville for preventing the access of nitrogen in experiments at high temperatures also prevents the passage of silicon．A mixture of carbon and finely divided iron is, on the contrary, ineffectual．These facts seem to indicate that nitrogen plays a part in the transportation of the silicon, as this is only prevented by the same means made use of in order to prevent the passage of nitrogen.
3．The volatility of free silicon at a high temperature is too slight to account for the alteration of the platinum at a distance．This can be shown by placing several decigrammes of crystallized silicon on the bottom of a small crucible of retort carbon, covering the silicon with a small flat disk of retort carbon upon which is placed the slip of platinum．The crucible, closed by its turned cover, is then enveloped in a titaniferous packing and kept at a brilliant white heat for an hour and a half．The metal is found to have only very slightly increased in weight, and its properties remain unaltered．This experiment was repeated several times with the same result．If, however, the crystallized silicon be replaced by powdered calcined silica, the platinum, placed upon the carbon disk, fuses and increases in weight, while the silica loses weight．The theory of these curious phenomena is very difficult to establish on account of the high temperatures which are necessary for their manifestation, but it may be concluded, at present, that nitrogen and probably oxygen also play some part in the transportation of the silicon across the intervening space, and that the carbosilicious compounds recently described by MM．Schützenberger and Colson also take part in the phenomenon.—Comptes Rendus, xciv., 1,710.—Amer．Chem．Journal.
STANNOUS NITRATES
At the Royal Powder Works at Spandau, Prussia, frequent ignition of the powder at a certain stage of the process led to an examination of the machinery, when it was found that where, at certain parts, bronze pieces which were soldered were in constant contact with the moist powder, the solder was much corroded and in part entirely destroyed, and that in the joints had collected a substance which, on being scraped out with a chisel, exploded with emission of sparks．It was suspected that the formation of this explosive material was in some way connected with the corrosion of the solder, and the subject was referred for investigation to Rudolph Weber, of the School of Technology, at Berlin．The main results of his investigation are here given.
The explosive properties of the substance indicated a probable nitro-compound of one of the solder metals (tin and lead), and as the
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