Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)


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Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889

Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889试读:

NEW YORK, AUGUST 17, 1889.

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXVIII., No. 711.Scientific American established 1845Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE.1AGRICULTURE.—How to Raise Turkeys.—A collection of 1I.hints and suggestions on the raising of the delicate fowls, so 3often the cause of trouble to farmers.6411Pear Duchesse D'Angouleme.—The history of the famous 3pear tree, with hints as to its culture and general treatment.6211BIOLOGY.—Development of the Embryo.—A note of some II.3interesting biological researches.—By Prof. Preyer, of Berlin.6511The "Hatchery" of the Sun Fish.—A curious incident in the life 3history of the common sunfish.—1 illustration.631CHEMISTRY.—On Allotropic Forms of Silver.—By M. Carey 1Lea.—A continuation of this paper, containing one of the most III.3important researches in the history of silver, with statement of 6interesting results attained.11On the Occurrence of Paraffine in Crude Petroleum.—A 1valuable contribution to the history of paraffine, with reference 3to petroleum and ozokerite.611Turpentine and its Products.—By Edward Davies.—A resume 1of the work done by chemists in the turpentine products.—The 3different compounds produced therefrom.611ELECTRICITY.—Electric Lighting at the Paris Exhibition.—1The Oerlikon works.—A very exhaustive exhibition of electric IV.3apparatus described and illustrated.—12 illustrations.56Magnetism in its Relation to Induced Electromotive Force and 1Current.—By Elihu Thomson.—A most impressive paper, 1bringing the obscure laws of magnetic induction within the 3understanding of all without the application of mathematics.—512 illustrations.41The Ader Flourish of Trumpets.—One of the curiosities in 1telephony from the Paris exhibition, by which sounds are 3transmitted to a large audience.—4 illustrations.581The Electric Motor Tests on the New York Elevated Railroad.—1Abstracts of tests which were recently made of the Daft motor 3on the elevated railroad of this city.531ETHNOLOGY.—Ancient Lake Dwellings.—Interesting 1abstract of what is known about lake dwellings, the history of V.3their construction, and the "finds" made on the sites by 6archæologists.31FORESTRY.—Succession of Forest Growths.—A valuable 1paper on forestry, treating of the evils done by man and a plea VI.3for the necessity of intelligent treatment of our woods.621HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.—Acetic Acid as a Disinfectant.—1Use of acetic acid in septic medical cases as a substitute for VII.3carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury.651Counter-Irritation in Whooping Cough.—By G.F. Inglott, M.D.—1Application of irritants to the skin for curing the paroxysms of 3whooping cough.651On the Health Value to Man of the So-called Divinely 1Beneficent Gift, Tobacco.—By J.M.W. Kitchen, M.D.—The 3evils to man and to the soil.—A formidable series of 6accusations well expressed.51Water as a Therapeutical Agent.—By F.C. Robinson, M.D.—1An interesting resume of different applications of water in 3therapeutics.—Suggestions of use for all households.641MILITARY ENGINEERING.—Gibraltar.—A history of this 1important strategic position and of the different sieges the VIII.3fortress has undergone.5211Gibraltar and Neighborhood.—A consular report on the 3statistics of the famous military station.521The Defense of Gibraltar—Experimental Naval and Military 1Operations.—Interesting series of operations recently carried 3out under the shadow of the historic rock.—1 illustration.521NAVAL ENGINEERING.—Clark's Gyroscopic Torpedoes.—A 1IX.recent torpedo, in which all the possible parts are made to 3rotate.—2 illustrations.5311The First Steamboat on the Seine.—The Marquis de Jouffroy's 3steamer of 1816.—1 illustration.5311The Franz Josef I., New War Ship.—Details of the dimensions 3of the new Austrian ship.—Her armament, speed, armor, etc.531PHOTOGRAPHY.—Orthochromatic Photography.—By Oscar 1O. Litzkow.—The last developments in this interesting branch X.3of photographic art, with formulæ.6011Platinotype Printing.—A description of the most advanced 3method of conducting the platinum print process.60PHYSICS.—Iridescent Crystals.—By Lord Rayleigh.—An 1abstract of a lecture by the distinguished physicist, detailing 1XI.some interesting experiments applicable to the colored 3reflection observed in crystals of chloride of potash.—1 6illustration.61Transmission of Pressure in Fluids.—By Albert B. Porter.—An 1apparatus for illustrating the laws of transmission of pressure 3in fluids, suitable for lecture purposes.—1 illustration.621TECHNOLOGY.—Notes on Dyewood Extracts and Similar 1Preparations.—By Louis Siebold.—The recent development in XII.3the preparation of dyewood extracts, with notes of their 5adulterations.9THE DEFENSE OF GIBRALTAR—EXPERIMENTAL NAVAL AND MILITARY OPERATIONS.

THE DEFENSE OF GIBRALTAR: EXPERIMENTAL NAVAL AND MILITARY OPERATIONS.

A novel and interesting series of operations was carried out at Gibraltar a few weeks ago, with a view to test the promptitude with which the garrison of the famous Rock could turn out to resist a sudden attack by a powerful iron-clad fleet. The supposed enemy was represented by the Channel Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Baird, and consisting of H.M.S. Northumberland (flag ship), the Agincourt, Monarch, Iron Duke, and Curlew. The "general idea" of the operations was that a hostile fleet was known to be cruising in the vicinity, and that an attack on the Rock might be made. The squadron left Gibraltar and proceeded to the westward, returning to the eastward through the Straits under cover of the night.

The Governor of Gibraltar, General the Hon. Sir Arthur Hardinge, issued orders for the whole garrison to stand to their arms at dawn, and subsequent days, until the attack should be made; but by his express command no batteries were to be manned, or any troops moved from their alarm posts, until the signal was given that an attack was imminent. The alarm signal ordered was that of three guns fired in rapid succession from the Upper Signal Station on the summit of the Rock, to be followed, after a short pause, by two more shots. It was a matter of complete uncertainty as to the direction from which the attack would be made.

Every detail was carefully carried out, as if the impending attack was a real affair. The telegraphic communication between the various parts of the Rock was supplemented by signalers; arrangements were made for the ready supply of reserve ammunition for all arms; and the medical authorities established dressing stations, at numerous points of the Rock, to render "first aid" to those who might chance to be numbered among the "wounded." Day broke with a "Levanter," and the heavy clouds hanging about rendered any distant view a matter of difficulty. However, before it had become actually daylight the alarm guns gave notice that the enemy had been sighted. The troops turned out with great promptitude, being all at their assigned stations in less than a quarter of an hour, and were shortly ordered to various points commanding the east side of the Rock. As day broke, the hostile ships were to be discerned steaming in single line ahead, from the northeast, along the back of the Rock, and about 5,000 yards from it. The flag ship, followed by the Monarch and the Agincourt, proceeded toward Europa Point, while the Iron Duke and the Curlew stood close in to the eastern beach, so as to engage the northern defenses of the fortress. The first shot was fired by the flag ship, shortly before six o'clock in the morning, at the southern defenses. It was replied to, in less than three minutes, by the Europa batteries, and very shortly the engagement became general. The plan of tactics employed by the squadron was that of steaming rapidly up and down, and concentrating their fire in turn on the various shore batteries. Later on, the whole squadron assembled off Europa Point, and fired broadsides by electricity as they steamed past at speed. The spectacle at this moment was a very fine one, the roar of the heavy guns of the ships being supplemented by the sharp, rapid report of the quick-firing guns, which were supposed to be sending a storm of small shell among the defenders of the Rock. The incessant rattle of the ships' machine guns was also heard in the intervals between the thundering broadsides of heavy ordnance. All the ships were, of course, cleared for action, with topmasts and yards sent down, and it is needless to say they looked exceedingly workmanlike and formidable.

The various batteries on the Rock replied with great vivacity, and the general effect produced as gun after gun was brought to bear on the ships, and the white smoke wreathed itself round the many crags and precipices of the grim old Rock, was a sight long to be remembered. The exercise afforded to both branches of the service was undoubtedly most instructive. Our illustration is a sketch by Captain Willoughby Verner from one of the batteries above the Europa Flats, at which point the governor took up his position to watch the operations.—Illustrated London News.

GIBRALTAR AND NEIGHBORHOOD.

REPORT BY CONSUL SPRAGUE.

Notwithstanding that the political situation of Europe seems to be less threatening among its leading powers, still the uncertainty prevalent among those who are generally considered the arbiters of public affairs has had its influence in contracting the limits of speculative adventure, thereby circumscribing the general course of trade throughout the Mediterranean.

In renewing to the department my reports upon the navigation and general commerce of Gibraltar, I beg to state that there has been a tolerably fair current business prevailing in American produce during the past quarter, consisting chiefly in flour, tobacco, and refined petroleum in cases, imported direct from New York.

The steady demand for American petroleum confirms the fact that Russian petroleum so far receives but little attention in this market from the regular traders and consumers, so long as supplies from the United States can be regularly imported at reasonable prices. It, however, remains an open question, in the event of lower prices ruling in the Russian petroleum regions, whether American supplies may not later on experience some greater competitive foreign interference.

According to the statistical data, steam vessels of all nationalities have continued to make Gibraltar their port of call, not only for orders, but also for replenishing their stock of fuel and provisions, and in larger numbers than ever before, the number in 1888 having reached 5,712 steam vessels, measuring in all 5,969,563 tons, while in 1887 the number was only 5,187 steam vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 5,372,962. This increase cannot but result in considerable benefit to the coal and maritime traffic, which now forms the most important portion of the general commerce of Gibraltar, in spite of the keen competition it experiences from other British and foreign coaling ports.

Freights have also advanced in favor of steamship interests, which, with higher prices in England for coal, have also caused an advance in the price of coal at this port, to the benefit of the coal merchants and others interested in this important trade. At present the ruling price for steam coal is 24s. per ton, deliverable from alongside of coal hulks moored in the bay. As near as I have been able to ascertain, the quantity of coal sold in this market during the past year for supplying merchant steam vessels has amounted to about 508,000 tons, which is an increase of about 20,000 tons over the year 1887.

Notwithstanding that plans have already been submitted to the British government for the construction of a dry dock in Gibraltar, the matter remains somewhat in suspense, since it meets with some opposition on the part of the British government, which, in face of the European fever for general arming, seems more inclined to utilize in another form the expense which such a work would entail upon the imperial government, by replacing the obsolete ordnance recently removed from this fortress and substituting new defenses and guns of the most approved patterns, a matter which has evidently been receiving, for some time past, the special attention of the British military authorities, not doubting that the recent visit to the fortress of the Duke of Cambridge has had some connection with it. In fact, it is reported that the duke has already expressed the opinion that this fortress requires a larger number of artillerymen than are quartered here at present to man its batteries, and it would seem that this recommendation is likely to be carried out.

It is yet somewhat too early to venture an opinion regarding the growing crops of cereals in this Spanish neighborhood, but the agricultural and manufacturing interests in Spain have suffered so much in the past years that the general feeling in Spain continues to tend toward establishing increased restrictions against foreign competition in her home markets. There is every probability that the provinces of Malaga and Granada may shortly be granted the privilege of cultivating the tobacco plant under government supervision, as an essay. If properly managed, it may form an important and lucrative business for those interested in land and agricultural pursuits.

After many consecutive years of heavy outlays, difficulties, and constant disappointments, a new English company has recently succeeded in commencing the construction of a railway from the neighboring Spanish town of Algeciras to join, via Ronda, the railway station of Bobadilla, on the railroad line toward Malaga. It is presumed that when this railroad will be in running order it will greatly benefit this community, especially if the Spanish government should decide to establish custom houses at Algeciras and the Spanish lines outside the gates of this fortress, similar to those existing on the frontiers of France and Portugal.

That some idea may be formed of the constant important daily intercourse which exists between this fortress and Spain, I may state that late police statistics show that 1,887,617 passes were issued to visitors entering this fortress on daily permits during the year 1888, 1,608,004 entering by the land route and 279,613 by sea. I must, however, observe that the larger portion of these visitors consists of laborers, coal heavers, market people, and others engaged in general traffic.

A new industry in cork has lately sprung up, in which leading Spanish and native commercial firms in Gibraltar are directly interested to a considerable extent. Extensive warehouses for the storing of cork wood and machinery for the manufacture of bottle corks have recently been established at the Spanish lines, about a mile distant from this fortress, in Spanish territory, where large quantities of cork have already been stored. The cork is obtained and collected from the valuable trees, which are owned by the representatives of some of the oldest nobility of Spain, who have sold the products of their extensive woods to private individuals for periods reaching as far on as ten years, for which concession large cash advances have already been made. The woods commence at a distance of about twelve miles from Gibraltar, and are of considerable extent.

The railway now in course of construction passes through these woods, which may ere long offer quite picturesque scenery for travelers, especially when the cork trees are bearing acorns, which form the principal food for the fattening of large herds of swine during certain seasons of the year, in this way, also, contributing to the value of this tree, which, like the other kinds of oak trees, is of long and tardy growth. The tree from which the cork is obtained is somewhat abundant in the mountainous districts of Andalusia. It grows to a height of about 30 feet, and resembles the Quercus ilex, or evergreen oak, and attains to a great age. After arriving at a certain state of maturity it periodically sheds its bark, but this bark is found to be of better quality when artificially removed from the tree, which may be effected without injury to the tree itself. After the tree has attained twenty-five years it may be barked, and the operation is afterward repeated once in every seven years. The quality of the cork seems to improve with the increasing age of the tree, which is said to live over one hundred and fifty years. The bark is taken off during July and August.

Cork dust is also obtained from this cork wood, and is much used in the packing of grapes, which fruit is largely shipped from the eastern coast of Spain, especially from Almeria, during the vintage seasons, for the American and British markets.—Reports of U.S. Consuls.

GIBRALTAR.

The point or rock known as Gibraltar is a promontory two and one-half miles long and from a quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide. It rises abruptly from the sandy shore to a height at its highest point of 1,408 ft. It is composed of gray limestone, honeycombed with caves and subterranean passages, some of which contain most beautiful stalactites in the form of massive pillars.

Gibraltar is emphatically a fortress, and in some respects its fortifications are unique. On the eastern side the rock needs no defense beyond its own precipitous cliffs, and in all other directions it has been rendered practically impregnable. Besides a sea wall extending at intervals round the western base of the rock, and strengthened by curtains and bastions and three formidable forts, there are batteries in all available positions from the sea wall up to the summit, 1,350 feet above the sea, and a remarkable series of galleries has been hewn out of the solid face of the rock toward the north and northwest. These galleries have an aggregate length of between two and three miles, and their breadth is sufficient to let a carriage pass. Portholes are cut at intervals of twelve yards, so contrived that the gunners are safe from the shot of any possible assailants. At the end of one of the galleries hollowed out in a prominent part of the cliff is St. George's Hall, 50 feet long by 85 feet wide, in which the governor was accustomed to give fetes. Alterations, extensions, and improvements are continually taking place in the defensive system, and new guns of the most formidable sort are gradually displacing or supplementing the old fashioned ordnance.

The whole population of Gibraltar, whether civil or military, is subjected to certain stringent rules. For even a day's sojourn the alien must obtain a pass from the town major, and if he wish to remain longer, a consul or householder must become security for his good behavior. Licenses of residence are granted only for short periods—ten, fifteen, or twenty days—but they can be renewed if occasion require. Military officers may introduce a stranger for thirty days. A special permit is necessary if the visitor wishes to sketch.

Though the town of Gibraltar may be said to date from the fourteenth century, it has preserved very little architectural evidence of its antiquity. Rebuilt on an enlarged and improved plan after its almost complete destruction during the great siege, it is still, on the whole, a mean-looking town, with narrow streets and lanes and an incongruous mixture of houses after the English and the Spanish types. As a proprietor may at any moment be called upon to give up his house and ground at the demand of the military authorities, he is naturally deterred from spending his money on substantial or sumptuous erections. The area of the town is about one hundred acres.

Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman geographers as Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably corruptions of the same local (perhaps Phenician) word. The eminence on the African coast near Ceuta, which bears the modern English name of Apes' Hill, was then designated Abyla; and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an ancient and widely current interpretation, formed the renowned pillars of Hercules (Herculis columnæ), which for centuries were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the Mediterranean world.

The strategic importance of the rock appears to have been first discovered by the Moors, who, when they crossed over from Africa in the eighth century, selected it as the site of a fortress. From their leader, Tarik Ibn Zeyad, it was called Gebel Tarik or Tarik's Hill; and, though the name had a competitor in Gebel af Futah, or Hill of the Entrance, it gradually gained acceptance, and still remains sufficiently recognizable in the corrupted form of the present day. The first siege of the rock was in 1309, when it was taken by Alonzo Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV. of Spain, who, in order to attract inhabitants to the

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