作者：（美）霍尔
出版社：经济科学出版社
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世界史试读：
Part 1 Ancient History 古代史
第一章 我们从哪里来
1.Origin of the Human 人类的起源The Evolution of Ape-man 猿人的进化The ape-man（formerly know as Homo erectus）is an extinctspecies of hominid that originated in Africa,and spread as far as India,China and Java,about 1.8 to 1.3 million years ago.猿人复原图
The first theory is that ape-man migrated from Africa during the Early Pleistocene,possibly as a result of the operation of the Saharan pump,around 2.0 million years ago,and dispersed throughout much of the Old World.Fossilized remains 1.8 to 1 million years old have been found in Africa（e.g.，Lake Turkana and Olduvai Gorge），Europe（Georgiaand Spain），Indonesia（e.g.，Sangiran and Trinil），Vietnam,China（e.g.，Shaanxi）and India.
The second theory is that ape-man evolved in Asia and then migratedto Africa.The speciesoccupied a West Asian site called Dmanisi,in Georgia,from 1.85 million to 1.77 million years ago,at the same time or slightly before the earliest evidence in Africa.Excavations found 73 stone tools for cutting and chopping and 34 bone fragments from unidentified creatures.
猿人（也称直立人）是一个已经灭绝的古人类物种，约于1.8万至1.3万年前，起源于非洲，后迁徙至印度、中国和爪洼（今东南亚）等地区。
有一种理论认为猿人源于非洲，在早更新世晚期，距今约200万年左右，由于撒哈拉板块的运动和旧世界许多地方的分离而向外迁移。目前，已经在非洲（如图尔卡纳湖和奥杜威峡谷）、欧洲（格鲁吉亚和西班牙）、印度尼西亚（桑吉兰和特里尼尔）、越南、中国（如陕西）和印度等地发现其遗迹化石，距今约180～100万年。
第二个理论认为猿人起源于亚洲，并且在亚洲繁衍，然后迁移到非洲。该物种大约在185万到177万年前，在西亚的格鲁吉亚建立了一个定居点“德马尼斯”，这是这个时期或稍早时期猿人在非洲生存的最早证据。目前，已经发掘发现了73个用于切割和斩断不同物质的石制工具和34片动物碎骨。
The Use of Fire and Tools 对火和工具的运用
Homo ergaster used more diverse and sophisticated stone tools than its predecessors,however,used comparatively primitivetools.H.ergaster refined inherited Oldowan technology developing the first Acheulean bifacial axes：while the use of Acheulean tools began ca.1.6 million years ago,the line of H.erectus diverged some 200，000 years before the general innovation of Acheulean technology.Thus the Asian migratory descendants of H.ergaster made no use of any Acheulean technology.In addition,it has been suggested that H.erectus may have been thefirst hominid to use rafts to travel over.人类演化示意图
Sites in Europe and Asia seem to indicate controlled use of fire by H.erectus.A presentation at the Paleoanthropology Society annual meeting in Montreal,Canada in March 2004 stated that there is evidence for used and controlled fires in excavationsin northern lsrael from about 690，000 to 790，000years ago.A site called Amata,located on the French Riviera,which lies on an ancient beach,seems to have been occupied by H.erectus；it contains the earliest evidence of controlledfire,dated at around 300，000 years BC.图尔卡纳男孩
猿人是在使用石器工具上比其先祖更加多样化和复杂化，不过，他们使用的工具依然比较原始，他们继承了奥杜威技术并首次发展其为阿舍利双面斧。他们首次使用这种工具是在旧石器时代早期，约160万年前。在普遍使用阿舍利技术（考古学上对于史前人类石器工艺技术的称呼）的20万年前，猿人就出现了分支，但猿人的亚洲移民后裔没有使用阿舍利技术。考古发现，这一阶段猿人第一次使用木筏旅行。直立人下颌骨的模型，法国
与此同时，欧洲和亚洲的一些发现也表明猿人有使用火的能力。2004年3月，在加拿大的蒙特利尔召开的古人类学年会中显示，在以色列北部一个距今约69万至79万年前的遗迹中找到了猿人控制火并使用火的证据。大概在公元前30万年，法国南海岸的一个古老海滩上名叫阿马塔的据点上已经有猿人居住，还有猿人使用火的证据。
Ancient Hunter—Gatherers 古代狩猎者——采集者
The ape-man was probably an ancient hunter-gatherers'camp.And anthropologists such as Richard Leakey believe that it was more characteristic of modern humans than the south ape.At the same time,increased cranialcapacity generally coincides with the more sophisticated tools occasionally found with fossils.
The discovery of Turkana boy in 1984 gave evidence that,In the course of their anatomy,it may not have been capable of producing sounds comparable to modern human speech.Ergaster at least may have communicated with a pre-language lacking the fully developed structure of modern human language,but more developed than the basic communication used by chimpanzees.Turkana boy's discovery show that the existence of Homo sapiens capabilities of vocal sound.
Facts have proved that the ape-man has a series of progressive characteristics greatly expanded its adaptability.Therefore,The ape-man do not like their ancestry,as only members of wandering in the wilderness of Africa,but in later years doggedly out of Africa,spread to vast areas of Asia and many parts of Europe.
猿人很可能是一个古代狩猎—采集者的“营地”。人类学家理查德·利基等认为，猿人比之前的南方古猿更具有现代人类的特征。科学家还发现了同时代的与猿人脑容量增加相符合的更为复杂的工具。
1984年，图尔卡纳男孩遗骨于肯尼亚被发现，在对其解剖的过程中发现，它当时可能还没有与现代人类语言发音相近的声音。其语言结构与现代人类的语言结构相比有一定的缺陷，但比黑猩猩使用的基本语言功能发达。图尔卡纳男孩的发现表明猿人声带发声功能的存在。
事实证明，猿人所具有的一系列进步性特征大大地扩大了其适应性。因此，猿人再不像他们之前的那些人科成员那样仅仅在非洲的原野上徘徊，而是在后来的岁月里顽强地走出了非洲，散布到亚洲的广大区域以及欧洲的许多地区。Origin of the Human in Bible—Adam and Eve 圣经中人类的起源——亚当和夏娃
When God made thefirst man,he called him Adam and put him in a beautiful garden,the Garden of Eden.Here Adam lived in peace with all the animals.God gave Adam eternallife.But before God mad thefirst woman,Adam was lonely in the garden.When God saw that Adam was lonely,he madEve.God took a rib from Adam when he was asleep one night.From Adam’s rib,God made Eve.Adam was happy when he woke up the next morning and found Eve next to him.God said to Adam and Eve.“Here in the garden you have everything,but you cannot have one thing：you cannot eat the apples from the Tree of Knowledge.”亚当和夏娃
One day Satan came to the Garden of Eden.He changed into a serpent and went to live in the Tree of Knowledge.When Eve came near the tree one day,the serpent called her.He gave her an apple and said，“Here.Take this apple and eat it.Don't listen to God.Eat it.”After Eve took a bite,she took the apple to Adam.He was afraid,but Eve repeated again and again，“lt's good.Here.Eat it.Why not? So hefinally ate the apple.”
Before they ate the apple,Adam and Eve did not know that they were naked.But after they ate the apple,they were ashamedand covered their bodies with leaves.Godwas angry with them.He said，“Leave the garden.You cannot stay here. When Adam and Eve left the garden,they had theirfirst experience of pain and hard work in the cold hard world outside.”
在上帝造出第一个男人时，他给他起名为亚当，并将其放在一座美丽的伊甸园里。在这里，亚当和各种动物和睦相处。上帝给了亚当永恒的生命，但在他造出第一个女人之前，亚当一个人觉得很寂寞。上帝看到了亚当的寂寞，于是，一天夜里，上帝趁亚当睡着时从他身上取出一根肋骨，并用这根肋骨造出了第一个女人夏娃。第二天早上亚当醒来发现夏娃躺在他身旁时，非常高兴。上帝对亚当和夏娃说：“你们在园中什么都有。但有一样东西你们不能做：不能吃智慧树上的苹果。”
有一天，撒旦来到伊甸园，变成一条毒蛇盘绕在智慧树上。当夏娃来到树旁时，毒蛇把她叫过来，给了她一颗苹果说：“把这苹果拿去吃掉。不要听上帝的话，把它吃掉。”夏娃咬了一口之后把苹果带给亚当。亚当本来很害怕，但夏娃一再地说：“挺好的。来，把它吃掉。干吗不吃呢？”因此，最后他把苹果吃掉了。
在吃苹果之前，亚当和夏娃是不知道自己是赤身裸体的，吃了苹果之后，他们就感到难为情了，于是用树叶把身子遮了起来。上帝对他们恼怒了，他说：“离开伊甸园。你们不能再在这里居住了。”离开伊甸园之后，亚当和夏娃在外边寒冷艰难的世界里，第一次尝到了痛苦和艰苦劳动的滋味。2.Make Fire for Civilization—Homo Sapiens 取火点燃文明——智人What is Homo Sapiens 何为智人
Humans（known taxonomically as Homo sapiens,Latin for“wise man”or“knowing man”）are the only living species in the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae.They have a highly developed brain,capable of abstract reasoning,language,introspection,and problem solving.This capability combined with an erect body carriage that frees the hands for manipulating objects,has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other living species on Earth.
Like higher primates,humans are social animals.Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression,the exchange of ideas,and organization.Humans create complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups,from families to nations.Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values,social norms,and rituals,which together form the basis of human society.智人复原图，德国赫恩
Humans are noted for their desire to understand and influence their environment,seeking to explain and manipulate phenomena through science,philosophy,mythology,and religion.This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills,which are passed down culturally.
人类（分类学上称为智人，为“智者”或“明知男子”的拉丁语）是类人猿家族中的唯一以两足行走的灵长类生物物种。他们拥有高度发达的大脑，并且具有思维能力、语言能力、反思能力和解决问题的能力，这些能力结合手可以控制肢体活动，使得人类比在地球上的其他物种，可以更大限度地使用工具。大约90万年前的智人家庭（印度尼西亚雅加达国家博物馆）
与大多数最高级灵长类动物一样，人类是群居动物，是唯一擅长自我表达、交流思想并创立语言交流系统的物种。他们创造出了复杂的社会结构，从家庭到国家，有合作、有竞争。这些早期人类相互活动中所建立的价值观念、社会规范、礼仪共同构成了人类社会的基础。
通过科学、哲学、神话和宗教，人类表现出认识和改造自然的渴望，这种天生的好奇心，使得先进的工具得以应用、技术得以发展、文化获得传承。The Development of Homo Sapiens 智人的发展
Anatomicallymodern humans evolved from archaic Homo sapiens in Africa in the Middle Paleolithic,about 200，000 years ago.By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period（50，000 before present），full behavioral modernity,including language,music and other cultural universals had developed.
Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to the“out-of-Africa”scenario,and has marginalized the competing multiregional hypothesis,which proposed that modern humans evolved,at least in part,from independent hominid populations.
Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species.They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene,the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs-no more than 10，000，and possibly as few as 1，000-resulting in a very small residual gene pool.
解剖学上的现代人类进化，大约是从20万年前中石器时代的非洲智人开始的。大约在旧石器时代早期（距今约5万年），智人完整的行为，包括语言、音乐和其他文化的共性都已经有所发展。
自20世纪90年代以来，人类基因学积累的证据给予了“向非洲外迁移”学说大力的支持，并且使多区域竞争的假设边缘化。多区域竞争的假设认为：现代人类的进化，至少在区域层面，是从各独立原始人群中进化的。
来自于犹他州大学的遗传学家琳·卓德和亨利·哈彭丁认为，人类DNA中变异的周期与其他物种相比，其实很短。他们还认为，在晚更新世期间（晚更新世也称上更新世，距今约13万年至1万年），人口基因减少到一个非常小的规模——不超过10，000，可能接近1，000，这是一个非常小的残余基因库。3.Parents Take Turns to do Head of the Household—Matrilineal Society and Patrilineal Society 父母轮流当户主——母系氏族和父系氏族Matrilineality 母系氏族
In the early stages of Clan society,women has enjoyed high status in society,to grasp the leadership of the clan.Lineage inherited by women,children and grandchildren taken ownership the mother.Yangshao is generally believed that is China's stage of matriarchal society.Yi Luo Kuishi American Indians is a typical matriarchal clan community.After Clan member's death,the property owned by the same people all the clan.The same clan has obligated for mutual assistance,protection and revenge.In the period,people“only know his mother,do not know his father.”已知最早的人体雕刻
Matriarchal society exists attribute to human beings for their own physiological phenomenon was not enough understanding and gender relations and reproduction is not to be linked,only know that their children and mothers have associated with blood,they don't know his father's presence,and his father do not know blood related.With the development of medicine,they found human gender relations and the inevitable link through children,and they thought male easier access to physical production and living conditions,to take on family responsibilities,men will gradually assume the responsibility of masters,matriarchal society gradually disappeared.
在氏族社会的早期阶段，女性在社会中享有很高的地位。她们掌握氏族的领导权，世系按女性继承，子孙归属母亲。一般认为中国的仰韶文化和美洲印第安人的易洛魁氏族就属于典型的母系氏族社会。母系氏族成员死后，其财产归同氏族的人所有。同氏族的人有互相援助、保护和共同复仇的义务。此时期，人们“只知其母，不知其父”。
母系氏族之所以存在是因为当时人类对于自身生理现象还没有足够的了解，没有把两性关系与繁衍后代联系起来，只知道子女与母亲有血缘关联，而不知道父亲的作用，更不知道与父亲之间的血缘关联。随着医学的发展，当人类发现两性关系与生儿育女之间的必然联系时，他们认为男性生理条件更容易获得生产生活资料，承担家族责任，所以男性也就逐渐担负起当家做主的责任，母系氏族社会就此消亡了。Patrilineality 父系氏族
As the further development of agriculture and handicrafts,men's position and influence in production growing,it occurring social center's improvement,therefore,matriarchal clan society and patriarchal society is a necessary requirement for the development of social productive forces.Patrilineal society is a new social and cultural system,but also one of the most profound changes in history.This change adapts to the development of the productive forces.
In patrilineal societies,men hold higher property and social status than women.Family and marriage relations transfer from by matriarchal society“the wife home”to“patrilocal residence，”children naturally are the member of matriarchal society no longer a member of a parent clan members,to become the successor to his father property.With the development of social productivity and the Leave of the fruits of labor,some people can share the fruits of labor of others,and use the labor share of the wealth servitude to others,so the phenomenon of wealth,private property began to grow.Changes in the disparity created the basis of class,the late clan society began to collapse,class society began to appear.
由于农业和手工业的进一步发展，男子在生产中的地位和作用越来越大，社会中心自然发生偏移，因此，母系氏族社会和父系氏族社会，是社会生产力发展的必然产物。父系氏族社会是一种新的社会文化体系，也是人类历史上发生的最深刻变革之一。这种变革是同当时生产力的发展相适应的。
在父系氏族社会中，男性的财产权和社会地位高于女性，家庭婚姻关系也由母系氏族社会的“从妻居”改变为“从夫居”，子女自然也不再属于母系氏族的成员而成为父系氏族的成员，成为父亲财产的继承者。随着社会生产力的发展和劳动成果的剩余，一些人能够占有他人的劳动成果，并利用这些成果役使他人，于是，贫富现象出现，私有财产开始萌芽。贫富悬殊的变化是阶级产生的基础，到父系氏族社会的后期，氏族社会开始土崩瓦解，阶级社会开始出现。非洲母系氏族4.The Legend of the Great Flood 大洪荒的传说The Legend of the World 世界性的传说
A flood myth or deluge myth is a mythical or religious story of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution.It is a theme widespread among many cultures,though it is perhaps best known in modern times through the biblical and Quranic account of Noah's Ark,the Hindu puranic story of Manu,through Deucalion in Greek mythology or Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
洪水神话或洪荒传说是关于神引发大洪水的神话或宗教故事，讲的是一场大洪水毁灭人类文明的故事，是上帝或神为了处罚人类而进行的一场破坏。洪水神话在世界上许多文化中都是一个广泛流行的主题——尽管它也许因为近代印度教马努的故事、圣经和古兰经中的诺亚方舟、希腊神话中的丢卡利翁、吉尔伽美什史诗中的阿特拉哈西斯以及中国的大禹治水而更为人知。Greek Mythology：Deucalion and Flood 希腊神话：丢卡利翁与洪水
Towards the end of the Age of Bronze,people in world became very cruel,hungry,impolite and ungodly.Neither righteous or law was respected any longer,and the rule of hospitality was forgotten.
One day,Dressed up in human form,Zeus visited Arcadia and Thessaly.Hating the deadly wrong of men,he decided to clear the earth of them.Without hesitation,he brought the rainy south wind and called upon the heartless Poseidon to help.Soon the whole world sank in a vast ocean,and the entire human race disappeared in the unheard of flood,all but two poor Thessalians.
These were an old couple,kind and faithful and contented with life.The man was called Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha.Son of Prometheus,Deucalion had been warned beforehandby his father of the coming flood and made himself a huge chest.When the roaring flood came,the couple hid themselves in it and floated for nine days until it touched land again on Mt Parnassus.
The active world presented a frightening sight.It was all death and ruin.Feeling lonely and unsafe,the old couple prayed to the gods for help.A sage instructed them to cast the bones of their mother.They having guessed the true meaning of the mysterious command,started throwing stones behind him.A miracle occurred.The stones that the man cast became men；the stones that the woman threw turned into women.Since then,people appeared on the land again.The Heroic Age had begun.
到了青铜期末代，人类世界变得非常残忍、贪婪、粗鲁且不虔诚。公理与法律不再受到尊重。殷勤好客的风俗被遗忘。
一日，宙斯装扮成凡人的样子视察阿卡迪亚和色萨利两地。他不喜欢凡人极度的罪恶，决心将他们从地球上铲除。他毫不犹豫地释放了夹雨的南风，并召来冷酷无情的波塞冬协助他，很快整个人类世界淹没在一片汪洋之中。除了两名恭顺的色萨利人幸免于难外，人类被史无前例的洪水吞噬。
这对色萨利老夫妻善良、虔诚、对生活心满意足。这个丈夫是普罗米修斯的儿子，名叫丢卡利翁，他的妻子名为皮拉。丢卡利翁的父亲事先就警告他会爆发洪水，因此，他特意做了个巨大的箱子。当咆哮的洪水涌来时，夫妻俩就躲藏在箱中，这样漂泊了九天，最终漂到了帕那萨斯山。
曾经生机勃勃的大地呈现出恐怖的景象。死亡与毁灭四处蔓延。老夫妻深感孤独和危险。他们就向上帝祈祷，乞求帮助。一位圣人指示他们把母亲的遗骨掷向四周。他们马上悟出了这个神秘指示所隐含的意义。他们开始将石头抛向身后。奇迹出现了，男人抛出的石头变成了男人，女人抛的则变成了女人。从此人类再次在陆地上出现，英雄时代也随之来临。北美印第安人的大洪水传说Emperor Yu Tames the Flood 大禹治水
It is said that Yu the Great was the chief of the legendary Xiahou clan.He was originally called Yu or Xiayu.The Yellow River flooded during the reign of Emperor Yao（Yanhuang tribal alliance's first leader），water washed away villages and house,the people were forced to abandon their villages,and go to live in trees or on mountaintops.The flood brought great misery to the people.At that time,Emperor Yao appointed Gun to tame the flood.Gun built dikes to keep back the water,but failed.大禹治水
After Yao,Shun became the leader of the tribal alliance,he killed Gun,and appointed Gun's son Yu to continue with the flood-harnessing work.Yu learned lessons from Gun,Switching the dredging method to lead the flood waters to flow along river courses into the sea.Yu worked very hard.It was said that he spent 13 years taming the floods；he passed through his home three times,but did not enter.Finally,Yu subdued the floods.As a result of his successful efforts,the people bestowed on him the title“Yu the Great”and Shun chose Yu as his successor,with the approval of the tribal leader.After Shun's death,Yu became the leader of tribal alliances.
At that time the flood had just put down,vegetation lush,and wild beasts grew rampant,threatening the survival of the people.Yu sent someone to teach people how to dominate the land and feed themselves in a regular and organized way.People's lives gradually settle down.Then,Yu has launched a war on Miao,to prevent them from entering the Yellow River Basin；Huaxia consolidated position in the Central Plains region.
About 2070 BC,Yu established the Xia Dynasty,the first dynasty in Chinese history.After Yu's death,his son Qi succeeded to the throne,cause Youhu clan revolt.Crushing an attempt to overthrow him by the Youhu clan,his status has been recognized by tribes.From then on,system of hereditary was overthrown by the leader of the kingdom of shang.The Xia Dynasty lasted over 400 years,ultimately fallen down because of political decay.
相传，大禹是夏后氏部落的首领，原称“禹”，也称“夏禹”。帝尧（炎黄部落联盟的第一位首领）时，黄河发大水，水冲毁了村庄和房屋，人民被迫离开村庄，他们只能住到树上和山顶上。洪水给人们带来了巨大的灾难。那时，尧任用鲧治理洪水，鲧采用筑堤堵水的办法治水，遭到了失败。
尧之后，担任部落联盟首领的舜杀死了鲧，然后命令鲧的儿子禹继续治水。禹吸取了鲧的教训，改用疏导的方法治水，让洪水顺河道流向大海。禹辛勤地在外治水13年，三次经过家门都没有时间进去看看。最后，禹终于制服了水患。人们感谢禹，尊称他为“大禹”。由于他治水成功，舜征得各部落首领的同意，推举禹为继承人。舜死后，禹便成为部落联盟的首领。
那时洪水刚刚平定，草木茂盛，野兽危害人民，禹派人教百姓开辟耕地，收获粮食。人民的生活渐渐安定下来。之后，禹又对苗族发动战争，阻止他们进入黄河流域，巩固了华夏族在中原地区的地位。
约公元前2070年，禹建立夏朝，是中国历史上第一个王朝。后来禹死了，他的儿子启继承了禹的位置，引起有扈氏部落的反抗。启打败了有扈氏以后，他的地位得到了各部落的承认。从此世袭制代替了禅让制。夏朝历经400多年，最终因政治腐朽而灭亡。
第二章 尼罗河的赠礼
1.Three Thousand Years of Heritage—Ancient Egypt 三千多年的传承——古埃及古埃及文明Ancient Egypt is located in northeast Africa,the Nile River region,a time span of nearly 3，000 years of ancient civilization.Much of the land is desert.But the River Nile,the longest river in the world,runs through the desert.Egypt has been called“the gift of the Nile .Without the Nile valley,very few people could live in that country.The Nile valley was so fertile that the Egyptians had two or three harvests each year.
With plenty of food,the people did not have to work so hard.They had a lot of free time.That is why the civilization of Egypt began in the Nile valley.The fine cities,Temples and pyramids of ancient Egypt were built on the banks of the Nile.Trade developed along the Nile too.Life in ancient Egypt was more peaceful than life in Summer.Egypt was safer because it had sea and desert round it.This made it difficult for invaders to conquer it.It was much easier for invaders to reach Sumer.
古埃及是位于非洲东北角尼罗河中下游地区的时间跨度近3000年的古代文明，其国土多为沙漠，但是世界上最长的河流——尼罗河，却纵贯整个沙漠。埃及一直被称为“尼罗河的赠礼”。要是没有尼罗河，就不会有多少人生活在这里。尼罗河流域相当肥沃，因此，早期埃及人在此种植的庄稼可以一年两熟或三熟。
由于粮食充裕，所以人们不必拼命劳作，因此他们就有了许多闲暇时间。这也是埃及文明之所以始于尼罗河流域的原因。在古埃及，那些精美的城市、庙宇以及金字塔均建于尼罗河两岸。贸易也是沿尼罗河而发展的。与苏美尔相比，在古埃及，人们的生活很安宁，也较为安全，原因在于其周围有海洋和沙漠环绕。这就使得侵略者难以入侵这片土地。相反，侵略者要想到达苏美尔却要容易得多。
History 历史
The time-chart below shows the important events of ancient Egyptian history.
下述时间表列出了古埃及历史上发生的重大事件。
Government 政府
In the beginning,the Egyptians belonged to different tribes.The tribes were slowly brought together into two kingdoms：Lower Egypt in the north and Upper Egypt joined the two kingdoms into one.ln 3200 BC,the King of Lower Egypt consisted of the two Kingdoms as a whole,he was thefirst Pharaoh.The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was not only their king but also one of their gods.Nobody could disagree with him.The pharaohs owned all the land.They made all the laws and controlled the Egyptian army.Their power was passed from father to son.Altogether,thirty families,or dynasties ruled ancient Egypt.金字塔的内部结构
埃及人起初分属不同的部落，后来，这些部落逐渐联合为两个王国，即北部的下埃及和南部的上埃及。大约在公元前3200年，上埃及国王米诺斯将两个王国合而为一，他是第一位法老。埃及人认为，法老不仅是王。而且是神，任何人都不能与他相违抗。全国的土地均属法老，所有的法律皆由法老制定，埃及军队法老控制，他们的权力父子相传。先后共有30个家族（王朝）统治过古埃及。
Economic Life 经济生活
In many ways,economic life in ancient Egypt was like life in Sumer.Most of the early Egyptians were farmers.They invented the plough.It was pulled by oxen guided by a man.Like the Sumerians,the Egyptians kept cattle and sheep.The Egyptians learned to water their land in a clever way.They developed an irrigation system.They dug little canals that carried the water from the river to theirfields.
The Egyptians were good at working with metal.They made tools and weapons from copper and bronze.
古代埃及人的经济生活在诸多方面类似于苏美尔人的生活。早期埃及人大都从事农耕。他们发明了犁。犁用牛拉，而牛则由一名男子在前牵引。与苏美尔人一样，埃及人也饲养牛羊。埃及人还学会了一种聪明的方法来灌溉土地，他们开发出一种灌溉系统，他们开挖小型沟渠，然后将水由大河引入农田。
埃及人善于金属制造。他们用铜和青铜来制造工具和武器。
Building and Art 建筑与艺术
Almost all Egyptian buildings,carvings and paintings had a religious purpose.Many of the ancient Egyptian buildings are still there today because they are made of stone.Many of the pyramids can still be seen along the Nile now，4000 years after they were built.The most famous and biggest pyramid is the Great Pyramid built by Khufu,a pharaoh of the Old Kingdom.It took about 100，000 men twenty years to built it.The ancient Greeks included it among the Sever Wonders of the Ancient World.It is the only one of the Seven Wonders still standing today.
The Egyptians also built huge temples of stone.The most famous are the Temple of Karnak and the Temple of Luxor.The Egyptians built these huge pyramids and temples without the machines and tools used today.This is why the Egyptians are called the greatest builders in history.
The Egyptians were also great sculptors.Many of their statues were very large.They were often carved out of rock.The best example is the Great Sphinx.It has the body of a lion and the face of a man who was full of carvings and pictures.They show people in market places,people dancing and playing musical instruments,and people at work.They tell us a lot about the daily life of the ancient Egyptians.
埃及人所有的建筑、雕刻和绘画几乎都有自己的宗教意图。古埃及的许多建筑物至今仍然耸立在那里，这是因为他们是由石头建成的。在尼罗河两岸，如今仍可见到许多金字塔，而这些金字塔从建成至今已经有4000多年的历史了。最为有名且最大的金字塔是由古王国法老胡夫下令建造的。大约花费10万人用了20年时间才建成。古希腊人称之为“古代世界七大奇迹”，他也是唯一一个保存至今的建筑。
埃及人还用石头建造了大型的庙宇。最为著名的是卡纳克神庙和卢克索神庙。埃及人在建造这些巨型的金字塔和庙宇的时候，并没有我们今天所使用的机器和工具。这正是埃及人被称为历史最伟大的建筑师的原因所在。
埃及人还是伟大的雕塑家，他们所创作的雕像有许多都很庞大。这些雕像通常都是由岩石雕刻而成的。最为著名就是狮身人面像。他有狮子一样的躯体，而却有着一张人脸，这个人可能就是法老。古代埃及人的墓碑上布满了各种雕刻和绘画。这些作品描绘了在市场做生意之人，跳舞和演奏的人，使我们了解许多有关古埃及人日常生活方面的情况。金字塔
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