符号江苏.口袋本.昆曲(txt+pdf+epub+mobi电子书下载)

作者：俞为民

出版社：江苏人民出版社

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符号江苏.口袋本.昆曲试读：

Introduction

Chinese opera has a long history. Together with the Indian Sanskrit drama and ancient Greek tragicomedy, it is one of the three ancient opera forms in the world. Of the many genres of opera in China, Kun Opera (Kunqu) is the oldest, and it brings together the best of art and culture in ancient Chinese literature, music, and performance; indeed, its shining elegance and beauty has earned it the title of “orchid” in the flowering garden of Chinese opera. On May 18, 2001, UNESCO named Kunqu “A Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity”, recognizing that it is not only an outstanding representative of Chinese culture, but also an outstanding cultural heritage for mankind.

Kunqu’s Origin and Spread

1. Songs All Over Follow the Wu Style

In the Jiajing era (1521-1567) of the Ming Dynasty(1368-1644), Wei Liangfu reformed Kun opera, using the“Zhongzhou sound” (a central Chinese dialect) instead of original Kunshan dialect to sing, and changing the style from one in which melodies lead lyrics to one in which lyrics lead melodies. Wei Liangfu also reformed the rhythm of Kunqu, slowing the tempo and separating the words into three parts (head, abdomen, and tail), while matching these to long Kunqu melodies. The long, soothing melodies of Kunqu are reminiscent of the process of grinding rice flour in rural areas south of the Yangtze River (known as the “Jiangnan” region), and thus people call Kunqu “watermill tune” (“shuimoqiang”)or “watermill melody” (“shuimodiao”).Qiandeng, an ancient town in Kunshan, JiangsuWei Liangfu

Wei Liangfu also improved the musical accompaniments in Kunqu, a Southern musical form, by borrowing musical instruments from the North such as Sanxian and Pipa to accompany the voices.

Following Wei Liangfu’s reform of Kunqu, the playwright Liang Chenyu wrote the opera Washing Silk in the new Kunqu format. When this opera hit the stage, it expanded the impact of the new Kunqu which became the new standard to be met and matched in the Chinese opera world. Indeed, it was so popular throughout North and South that operas everywhere incorporated elements of the Wu style.

In the higher echelons of society, the long, delicate melodies and soothing artistic styles of the new Kunqu matched the aesthetic interests of the feudal literati and officialdom. Both literati and feudal officials regarded the composing and singing of opera as an elegant way to display their talent and sophistication.

The new Kunqu style was not only for the elite, but also welcomed by the common people. It was recorded in the literary works of Yuan Hongdao, Zhang Dai, and Shen Chongsui that in the Longqing (1566-1572) and Wanli(1572-1620) periods of the Ming Dynasty, singing and acting competitions of Kunqu were held on Tiger Hill in Suzhou during the Mid-Autumn Festival. With “Thousand People Stone” at the centre, from First Hill Gate to Tiger Hill Pagoda, people everywhere were singing and listening to the songs. People looked “like geese gathered on a sandy shore and rosy clouds over a river”. Ordinary citizens and literati alike tested their singing skills in the competitions. The famous Ming Dynasty scholar Yuan Hongdao, who once served as magistrate of Wu County, wrote about his experience in the Tiger Hill song gala in his piece Tiger Hill Notes, which vividly depicts the spectacular event.The Prosperous NanzhongThe Kunqu stage in the scroll “Scenes of The Prosperous Southern Capital”

2. Disputes between Tang and Shen; the Refining of Kunqu

At the same time that Wei Liangfu initiated the reforms of Kunqu, Liang Yuchen participated in writing Kunqu librettos as a scholar. Their contributions, however, were merely first steps toward the correction and upgrading of Kunqu.

In order to further enhance Kunqu’s literary and artistic taste, in the Wanli Period (1572-1620) of the Ming Dynasty, Tang Xianzu and Shen Jing built on Wei Liangfu and Liang Yuchen’s improvements to put forward their own propositions on drama. Tang Xianzu focused on the content and elegant language, and emphasized that when playwrights create dramas, they should fully express their personality and interests, while maintaining elegance in the drama’s language.

In contrast to Tang Xianzu, Shen Jing focused on refining Kunqu’s rules of melody; He proposed that the composer must comply with melodic rules. In order to provide standard examples for composer and performers, Shen Jing compiled three books on melodic rules.

With Tang Xianzu’s emphasis on the expression of content, parts of his operas did not follow the melodic rules, and thus Shen Jing modified Tang’s The Peony Pavilion where it failed to meet melodic rules. When Tang saw Shen’s revised version of his opera, he was very unhappy about the changes and criticized Shen.

The dispute between Tang and Shen caused a great response among playwrights at that time, and most playwrights took sides, thus bringing about the formation of two different operatic sub-genres. Those who supported Tang and opposed Shen’s approach formed the Linchuan School headed by Tang Xianzu; while those who supported Shen and criticized Tang’s approach formed the Wu Jiang School headed by Shen Jing.

Tang Xianzu and Shen Jing’s dispute had a great influence on the development of Kunqu. One pursued the expression of personal inclination and elegant diction, the other was in pursuit of exquisite melodic rules. It gave contemporary and later literati playwrights a clear understanding of the highest operatic standards to pursue; that is, they should blend Tang and Shen’s strengths so that talent, diction and melody would be harmoniously united. Therefore, after Tang and Shen’s dispute, drama theorists drew their own conclusions on how to approach drama, and gradually completed the process of refining Kunqu. Because of this, Kunqu in the mid-Qing Dynasty came to be considered as an elegant art form.

3. Outstanding Examples of Kunqu—Hong in the South and Kong in the North

From the mid-Ming Dynasty, following the reforms by Wei Liangfu and the legendary popularity of Liang Chenyu’s Washing Silk, Kunqu became the standard for operas in China, and thus was called the “Official Tune”(“guanqiang”). However, in the mid-Qing Dynasty, due to the rise of a new type of opera called “Flower”operas (huabu), Kunqu declined. During this period, two outstanding Kunqu playwrights—Hong Sheng and Kong Shangren, now known as the “Hong in the South and Kong in the North”—appeared. They, respectively, created the masterpieces The Palace of Eternal Life and The Peach Blossom Fan, both of which took the opera world by storm and injected new vitality into the declining Kunqu.

The Palace of Eternal Life (Changsheng Dian) by Hong Sheng (1645-1704) describes the love story of Li Longji and Yang Yuhuan. Li and Yang’s story had been narrated by multiple writers in their plays, such as Rain on the Paulownia Tree by Yuan Dynasty playwright Bai Pu, and Astonishing Beauty by Ming Dynasty playwright Wu Shimei. However, in constrast with previous plays, Hong’s The Palace of Eternal Life focuses on praising the love between Li and Yang, which endures for all eternity, beyond life and death.

The play has fifty acts. The first act summarizes the entire plot, and the next twenty-four acts describe Li and Yang’s love story from their meet to separation, and the last twenty-five acts focus on their love from separation to reunion. The second act shows the beginning of Li and Yang’s love story, but at that time their love was not yet firm or committed. However, with the development of the plot, Li and Yang’s love grows deeper and deeper, until it is all-consuming.

In the twenty-fifth act (which marks the start of the second half of the story), the incredible bond between the two lovers becomes evident: Yang Yuhuan is killed in the Mawei Incident, but her infatuation does not waver even though her earthly body has been destroyed. She still looks forward to maintaining her love bond with Li Longji. Although the gods allow her totake her place in heaven, she is unwilling to become immortal and only wants to be with Li Longji. Similarly, after Yang Yuhuan’s death, Li Long ji thinks of her day and night, and is unwilling to live in alone. The sincerity of the love between Li and Yang finally moves the Emperor of Heaven who allows them to ascend to paradise so that they can remain together forever as husband and wife.The Palace of Eternal Life

The Palace of Eternal Life immediately caused a sensation, and became dominant in opera repertoire. However, just one year after the opera was written, Hong Sheng’s name was removed from the Imperial Academy from which he had graduated. The story goes like this: The Neiju Troupe, a Kunqu troupe in the capital, became very famous and earned untold riches due to the popularity of their performances of The Palace of Eternal Life.

In order to repay the playwright, the Neiju Troupe performed in Hong Sheng’s residence in the capital on his birthday, and Hong invited many friends to see the performance. However, Queen Tong had just died, and according to custom, all recreational activities should stop. For this reason, Hong Sheng was impeached, and he and the audience in his residence were arrested and imprisoned. Later, with the prime minister’s intercession, Hong was released, but his name was removed from the Imperial Academy, and more than fifty officials present then were all demoted to a commoner rank. A poet at the time wrote of this incident: “The Palace of Eternal Life turned fame to ruin.”The Palace of Eternal Life

The Peach Blossom Fan, written by Kong Shangren(1648-1718), a native of Qufu in modern-day Shangdong Province and a sixty-fourth descendant of Confucius, was based on the love story between Hou Fangyu, a social celebrity, and Li Xiangjun, a famous courtesan. It describes the fall of the Southern Ming dynasty, and comments on its historical reasons and lessons, showing the playwright’s feelings about national rise and fall.

In the opera, the playwright reveals the reasons for the destruction of the Southern Ming Dynasty. One of them was ruling group’s political decay and darkness. After Ruan Dacheng, Ma Shiying and other remaining members of the eunuch faction crowned the foolish and dissolute King Fu, they bought concubines in pursuit of sensual pleasures, and at the same time, they arrested and killed opposition leaders, and expelled veteran ministers such as Shi Kefa.

The opera vividly exposed the debauchery of these fatuous and self-indulgent rulers and ministers, and thus let the audience see how these rulers brought the Southern Ming dynasty to ruin. The playwright showed that in fighting and power struggles within the ruling group were the second reason why the Southern Ming dynasty was destroyed: After the Southern Ming dynasty was established, the soldiers led by Zuo Liangyu guarded the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, and Huang Degong, Gao Jie, Liu Liangzuo, and Liu Zeqing guarded north of Yangtze River, but these generals fought each other in order to satisfy their own interests. Because they ignored the South-bound troops of the rising Qing power and immersed themselves in a large-scale civil war, their defensive strength was weakened.

As The Peach Blossom Fan reflected significant social reality and attained a high level of artistic achievement, it immediately gained popularity, and was staged again and again. The realism of this play reverberated with the audience, and made a great social impact, especially among the senior officials and adherents of the past dynasty, who were reported to have “sat there and coverered their faces with the sleeves of their robes” and to have “sighed and then scattered” after watching the opera.

The Palace of Eternal Life and The Peach Blossom Fan swept the opera stage in the Kangxi (1662-1722) and Qianlong (1736-1795) periods, which gave the declining Kunqu momentary glory, but in the end, the situation couldn’t be changed. “Hong in the South and Kong in the North” was just a spurt of activity prior to the collapse of the art form, and ultimately couldn’t change the fate of Kunqu’s decline.

4. The Establishment of the Kunqu Teaching and Learning Institute and the Passing-on of Kunqu to the Next Generation

In the early years of the Republic of China (founded in 1912), Kunqu was dying, and the performing troupes were scattered and without successors. This greatly concerned those who loved Kunqu, and thus they sought ways to save the declining art form.

In August 1921, Suzhou celebrities Bei Jinmei, Zhang Zidong, and Xu Jingqing initiated a proposal, attracting Wang Dingcheng, Sun Yongyu, Wu Mei, Li Shi’an, Pan Zhenxiao, Wu Cuilun, Xu Yinruo, Ye Liucun, and Chen Guansan to join them to form a board of directors. Together they raised one thousand silver dollars, and established the Kunqu Teaching and Learning Institute in the Five Acre Garden in Northern Suzhou. In February 1922, a wealthy businessman from Shanghai named Mu Ouchu invested and took over the institute, and hired Sun Yongyu as the director. Every student in the institute was given a stage name, that contains the Chinese character “chuan” (传, meaning “to pass on” or“inherit”), indicating the wish to pass Kunqu on to the next generation.

Starting in December 1927, due to business failure, Mu Ouchu was no longer able to provide financial support, so two industrialists from Shanghai,Yan Huiyu and Tao Xiquan, took over the institute under the auspices of the Weikun Company. After the take-over, the “chuan”students formed the New Yuefu (the name of musical bureau in ancient China) Troupe, and rented Shanghai’s Laughing Stage for performances. However, in early June of 1931, the New Yuefu Troupe disintegrated. With the help of Xu Lingyun and Li Xunru, the “chuan”generation of students formed their own troupe, called the Xianni Club, which premiered at the Shanghai Big World Amusement Park. However, soon after that, the Shanghai January 28th Incident (a short war between the ROC and Japanese armies) occurred. The Xianni Club went to Suzhou, but with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war, it was increasingly difficult for the Xianni Club to survive. In February 1942, the Xianni Club disbanded, and the“chuan” generation of actors scattered through out China to try to make a living.The Emperor’s Inspection of the SouthMu Ouchu

Although the Kunqu Teaching and Learning Institute, the New Yuefu Troupe, and the Xianni Club didn’t last for long, their efforts did succeed in delaying the decline of this operatic genre and training the “chuan” generation of actors. This generation maintained the blood lines of Kunqu’s heritage, and planted the precious seeds for the future revitalization of Kunqu in the 1950s.The first Kunqu stage photo in history: a scene from The Romantic MusicGroup photo taken at the founding of the Laolangmiao Kunqu ClubA theatrical bill of The New Yuefu

5. The Opera that Saved a Genre

After the founding of the PRC in 1949, the government placed emphasis on passing down and protecting traditional arts, and developed an approach of “making the past serve the present, and weeding out old to bring forth the new”. This approach gave new vitality to Kunqu, which had been on the verge of withering away.Fifteen Strings of Copper

In 1956, the Zhejiang Kun and Su Opera Troupe adapted Zhu Suchen’s Fifteen Strings of Copper (Shiwuguan) into a Kunqu opera, and experienced great success in their performances. Indeed, it was a success final model for success in the innovation of Kunqu. Fifteen Strings of Copper, also called The Xiong Brothers’Dream (“Shuangxiongmeng”), describes the brothers XiongYoulan and XiongYouhui suffering a miscarriage of justice. When Kuang Zhong, the magistrate of Suzhou prefecture, was assigned to monitor the executions, he discovered the brothers’ grievances, re-tried the case, and righted the wrongs. Although there were many feudal superstitions in the original work, it praised honest and upright officials who plead for the people, and condemned fatuous and foolish officials who have little regard for human life.

The opera’s praise of the pursuit of truth and justice, and its rejection of subjective decision-making in trying cases met the political needs of the 1950s and 1960s, for this was an era in which political demands called for opposition to bureaucratism and subjectivism, and support of truth-seeking through thorough investigation and research. Thus, in 1955, members of the Propaganda and Cultural Deparments of Zhejiang Province made further reforms to the traditional performances; in accordance with the political situation at the time, they further changed the theme from the praise of uncorrupt officials to seeking truth and condemning subjective bureaucratic practices.Lou Ashu, played by Wang Shiyao, a national class-A actor

Beyond adapting and refining the subject matter of Fifteen Strings of Copper, the Kunqu version also made innovations in performance; it moved beyond the traditional formulaic movements used for expressing characters’ personalities, which freed it up to be more expressive. It also made reforms and innovations to Kunqu’s traditional musical system, which is one of the reasons for its success. It is worth mentioning that the leading actors in Fifteen Strings of Copper were from the aforementioned “chuan” generation of students from the Kunqu Teaching and Learning Institute.

The opera was well-received in Hangzhou, Shanghai, Beijing, Tainjin, Nanjing, and other cities, and the Shanghai Film Studios filmed a performance that it then screened in Southeast Asian theaters. Its popularity was unprecedented. On May 18, 1956, The People’s Daily published a special editorial entitled “The Opera that Saved a Genre”, praising the significance of Fifteen Strings of Copper in reforming traditional Kunqu and contributing to its modern development. Indeed, the success of the Kunqu adaptation and performance of Fifteen Strings of Copper provides a good example of the continuation and development of Kunqu in the new era.Zhou Enlai receiving Mei Lanfang, Han Shichang, and Bai Yunsheng

6. The Popularity of the Young People’s Version of The Peony Pavilion (Mudanting)

With dramatic changes in the social environment in the 21 century, developing and carrying on a traditional operatic genre such as Kunqu is problematic. However, in 2004, under the direction of Kenneth Hsien-Yung Pai, the Jiangsu Suzhou Kunqu Theater held successful performances of an adapted young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion. This has provided as uccessful model for the development of traditional Kunqu in the new era.

The young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion was aimed at young audience with youthful passions. Young people, particularly college students, are the future of the nation; if they love Kunqu and consciously make efforts to promote and carry it forward, then Kunqu will continue to grow. Indeed, as a classical art, Kunqu must meet the aesthetic taste of contemporary audiences in order to develop in contemporary society. If traditional Kunqu can integrate modern factors, and cater to the aesthetic taste of the young people, especially college students, who are the leaders of the modern aesthetics, then this ancient art form can be passed along to the next generation and gain popularity with a wider audience.

In fact, the original Peony Pavilion storyline already had appealed to a modern and younger audience prior to the adaptation, for The Peony Pavilion tells a love story in which Du Liniang and Liu Mengmei, the hero and heroin in the opera, pursue happiness, love, and personal liberation, which are common values shared by all humanity. The story is traditional, and yet has modern significance, and it can break the boundaries of time and space for today’s audiences.

Many adolescents are in love, and some are in the midst of experiencing the most wonderful stage of life, so they also have a better vision of love and the pursuit of it. Because the love story of The Peony Pavilion suits the psychological needs of young audience with youthful passions, the Kunqu song and dance forms in the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion resonated with the young audience, and touched them a lot.The Peony Pavilion

The young people’s adaptation and stage performances of The Peony Pavilion did a number of things to tailor it to the taste of a younger audience. For instance, the theater selected young actors who would be attractive to modern youth. In the art form as well, the aesthetic taste of the young audience were fully considered; great innovations were made in the performance program, setting, costumes, andsinging. While the essential attributes of Kunqu were maintained, the adaptations made it easier for young people to accept, resulting in performances in which the ancient art forms of Kunqu were beautifully integrated with the aesthetics of young audiences in this new era.

Indeed, the adaptation and performance of the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion achieved the perfect blend of traditional Kunqu with the aesthetic and emotional appeal and the values of contemporary young audiences. It has allowed young audiences who never encountered Kunqu before to have a taste of the artistic charm of this operatic genre. Therefore, performances of the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion were very popular and widely welcomed, especially by the young audiences. The Suzhou Kunqu Theater brought the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion to dozens of colleges and universities in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao as well as Japan, the United States, Britain and other countries where it was well-received by foreign audiences.In Search of a Dream

The successful adaption of the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion provides insight for the development of traditional Kunqu in the new era. The reason for the success of the Kunqu adaptation of Fifteen Strings of Copper is that it took advantage of the particular political philosophy at the time, whereas the popularity of the young people’s version of The Peony Pavilion was based on its successful combination of traditional art and youthful aesthetic. When comparing the two, the latter approach is more sustainable, because the adaptation of classical Kunqu masterpieces has not only trained a group of young opera actors, but also has cultivated a large number of young Kunqu fans. Nurturing young audience is more strategic and important for the development of Kunqu. We should learn from these experiences to better reform Kunqu in the future.The ceremony of naming “The Week of The Peony Pavilion”, Santa Barbara, U. S. A.

Kunqu Art Forms

1. The Kunqu Musical System

Kunqu’s musical structure, known as “qupai”, (also called “lianqu”), is based on a sequence of tunes which have different tones and feelings that reflect the plot and the emotions of the characters. Every tune has a specific qupai name such as “The Drunken Couple”,“The Fragrant Osthmanthus Branch”, “Pomegranate”,“Hibiscus Flower”, “Sheep on the Hillside”, etc. Every qupai tune has a specific tone and feeling, and the tuning is determined by the bamboo flute, or “dizi”, which can play 7 different pitches.

Kunqu melodies are not written in Western musical notation, but instead in a traditional Chinese musical notation called “Gongchepu”, which marks the scale with the Chinese characters “上”，“尺”，“工”，“凡”，“六”，“五”，and “乙”, equivalent to the Western seven note scale of “do”, “re”, “mi”, “fa”, “so”, “la”, “si”. However, southern songs follow the pentatonic scale with only five tones, e.g. there is no “fa” or “si”.Liu Ye QupuGongchepu of The Hairpin

Kunqu’s melody is constituted by a variety of factors. The first is the sound of the words. Chinese is a kind of tonal language in which each syllable has a tone; these tones are a prescribed pitch or change in pitch within each syllable. Generally, melodies are determined by the tones of Chinese words as follows: Words with a level tone are smooth, long, and undulating; words with a falling-rising tone have longer ascending and descending sounds; falling-tone words have resounding and intense characteristics; entering-tone words are short and abrupt.

Besides the melodies determined by the sounds of words, Kunqu also has some modified melodic forms equivalent to the Bel Canto in Western music, such as:

Olive Tune (“ganlanqiang”): The volumeis controlled at the beginning, followed by a gradual crescendo (increase in the volume), then a gradual decrescendo (lowering the volume) after the halfway point. This shape of two thin ends with a thick middle is like that of an olive, hence the name.

Shake Tune (“souqiang”):Also known as flash tune or flutter tune.Through a technique that involves opening and closing the jaw, the singer produces a wonderful, sweet and agreeable sound.

Sob Tune (“chuaiqiang”):When one beat is comprised of two adjacent upward-moving Gongche, the pattern is repeated once while the original tempo is maintained.For example,“ Gongche” becomes “Gongche Gongche”.

Drop Tune (“duoqiang”):In a melismatic melody consisting of multiple notes, a pause is made in the middle to show the changes.

CushionTune (“dianqiang”):When two ascending notes (such as “上” and “工”, the equivalent of Do and Mi) are separated by one pitch (such as “尺”, the equivalent of Re), the in-between pitch is added as a cushion, so that the melody is smooth and mellow.

Hold Tune (“naqiang”):In adjacent phrases, in order to emphasize sound and feeling of the second phrase, the last few words of the first phrase are slowed down (i.e., a slight ritard is added).

Sell Tune (“maiqiang”):To enhance a long, melismatic melody, the sound is intentionally prolonged. This method is primarily used as a form of rubato.

Straight Back Tune (“tingyaoqiang”):The tune is prolonged for several beats, and coloratura can be added to make the melody ascend and descend,in order to avoid monotony.

Sigh Tune (“gantanqiang”):When singing, in order to strengthen the tone, interjections such as “a”, “ya”, and“cha”, are added.

Rhythm is also an important factor in the composition of Kunqu melodies. Kunqu rhythm is called “Plate andEye” (“banyan”). A drum is used to mark the measures. When the drum is struck heavily, the beat is called “The Plate” (“ban”) and when the drum is struck softly, the beat is called “The Eye” (“yan”).

Kunqu’s common rhythms are as follows:

Rubato (“sanban”):The rhythm is free. The drum is beat only at the end of a phrase. This is usually used for the roles of Sheng and Dan (as described below).Water chestnut drum (bosom drum)

One Plate and One Eye (“yibanyiyan”):This fastpaced rhythm is equivalent to two beats: the first beat is the “plate”, and the second beat is the “eye”. Mainly used in narrative scenes or to heighten emotion.

One Plate and Three Eyes (“yibansanyan”):This moderate tempo rhythm is equivalent to four beats; the first beat is the “plate” and the remaining 3 beats are“eyes”(the leading eye, the middle eye and the ending eye). Mainly used in lyrical melody.

Gift Plate (“zengban”):This rhythm adds another plate to the “One Plate and Three Eyes Rhythm”, i.e. the original “middle eye” is changed into a plate, the leading and ending eyes are changed into middle eyes, and then a leading eye and an ending eye are added just before and after the two middle eyes. The added plate is called the“gift plate”(“zengban”), and the original plate is called the “principal plate” (“zhengban”). The tempo of the gift plate rhythm is half that of the original One Plate and Three Eyes rhythm, so it constitutes eight beats. It makes the melody more lingering. Mainly used by the Sheng and Dan roles in lyrical melody.

Flowing Water Plate (“liushuiban”):This fast rhythm has plates, but no eyes. Mainly used for cruder melodies being sung by the Jing and Chou roles while walking or in scenes with a heightened sense of urgency.The beat plateThe tang drum (Tanggu)

2. Kunqu Roles

The primary Kunqu roles are Sheng, Dan, Jing, Chou and Za. Below is a brief overview of the five character types, their makeup, and the prescribed acting styles for each of these roles.

Sheng

This refers to male roles in opera repertoire characterized by handsome facial makeup. The types of Sheng roles are determined according to the age and identity of the role, and include the following: high officials, young officials, students, poor students, young generals, older males, young males, and soldiers.

High Officials (“Daguansheng”):Generally elegant civilian officials or emperors, they wear artificial beards and are gracious and generous.

Young Officials (“Xiaoguansheng”):Young civilian officials, they wear a silk hat, so they are also called “silkhat lads”. They both sing and chant, and must stand out for their elegant demeanor when performing.

Students (“Jinsheng”):Also known as “scholars”or“fan lads”, they wear a scarf and hold a folding fan. They play talented young fellows who have not yet passed the imperial examinations. Adept at singing, chanting and using the fan as a prop, they stand out for their elegant, refined, and sophisticated demeanor when performing.

Poor Students (“Qiongsheng”):Also known as“bitterlads”, they are ailing poor young scholars. Because many of them wear black clothes and step on the back of the heels of their shoes, they are also called “lads in black” or “shoe leather lads”. Prominent characteristics in their performances include a destitute demeanor, the sound of misery in their singing, slow walking movement, etc.Qiongsheng in The Embroidered Jacket

Young Generals (“Zhiweisheng”):Also known as “feather lads”, two pheasant tails are affixed on their helmets. They play dashing, young and valiant generals or sons of generals. Performances of this role require a clear loud voice, bold action, dancing that utilizes the helmet feathers as a prop, and a valiant, heroic demeanor.

Older Males (“Lao-sheng”):Also known as “bearded males”, they are older men who wear artificial beards. Depending on the identity and personality of the characters, the beards may have three locks, five locks, or full; refined literati wear three locks, generals wear full beards, and a beard with five locks is used especially for the character of General Guan Yu in dramas about The Three Kingdoms. Depending on the age of the characters, the colors of the beard can be black, dark, or white. These roles focus more on singing than action, and have a more composed and steady demeanor than some other roles.Laosheng in The Green Peony

Dan

Dan roles are female characters.The types of Dan roles are determined according to the age and identity of the role, and include the following: Upright Female, Young Female, Zuodan, Tiedan, Old Female, Assassination Female, Warrior Female, and Ear Female.

Upright Female (“Zhengdan”):Also called “Blue dresses”, these chaste, solemn, strong young women or middle-aged female characters wear blue dresses. They have excellent singing techniques with loud and high-pitched voices that get across a sad feeling. These characters often weep and are known for their chastity.

Young Female (“Xiaodan”):These characters are young unmarried women, usually the heroines in love stories. They are mostly from noble families, but sometimes from more common families, or are prostitutes or imperial concubines.When performing, they must have a mellow and elegant voice, as well as graceful and elegant make up. They are dignified and charming in demeanor.

“Zuodan”:Also known as “Young boy” or “Baby Doll”, this character is a bubbly male or female teenager. With sweet voice and gentle movements, they are aften lively and innocent.Tiedan in Thinking of Worldly Pleasures

“Tiedan”:This character is usually a lowly maid or servant to a Xiaodan character. They primarily act through action or chanting. They display witty and lively personalities, and thus are also referred to as “Lively Female”or “Happy Female”.

Old Female (“Laodan”):As the name suggests, this character is an older woman, usually in the role of a mother.The actor in this role focuses on singing techniques to bring out a generous and vigorous sound, and this character walks calmly and slowly on stage while showing signs of age such as a mild shaking of head. The demeanor is elegant, steady and kindly.Wudan in The Chivalrous Man

Assassination Female (“Cishadan”):This role has two types: One is a positive character who assassinates a traitor for revenge, and the other is a vicious and licentious villain. Assassination Females focus on martial arts.

Warrior Female (“Wudan”):Also known as “Knife and Horse Females”, these characters are good at martial arts, and are generals, elves, or other spirits. They wear tight clothing, and are good at somersaults and fighting.

Ear Female (“Erduodan”):This role is a maid in an imperial palace. The name derives from the fact that maids often flank both sides of the Emperor or Empress, just like human ears.

Jing

This refers to male roles with colorfully painted faces. The categories of Jing roles are as follows: Zheng Painted Face, Fu Painted Face, Dirty White Painted Face, and Oil Painted Face.

Zheng Painted Face (“Zhengjing”):Also known as“Big Painted Face” or “Big Face” because this character’s face is fully covered in color and colorful patterns,the face is primarily painted red and black. Red Faces play sedate imperial ministers. This role focuses on vocal techniques that produce a loud sound in order to highlight the powerful demeanor and fortitude of this character. Black Faces play brave and violent characters; their singing is forceful and loud to highlight the great magnanimity of these characters.

Fu Painted Face (“Fujing”):This role is also known as “White Painted Face”, and the face is painted white. This character is a traitor, with emphasis on having a posture and air that reveals treacherous cruelty under a calm fa?ade.

Dirty White Painted Face (“Latabaimian”):This character’s face is covered by white powder, with black dots and lines added around the eyes and nose. This character is quite humorous and has low social status.

Oil Painted Face (“Youhualian”):This character uses fake hips and padded breasts to achieve a strangely shaped and exaggerated figure. The focus is on gestures. Their actions are rugged, and they commonly perform“spitfire”, “playing teeth” and other stunts.

Chou

A Chou is a clown character; these characters range from funny and good-natured positive figures to treacherous, insidiousvillains. The two types of Chou roles, Small Clown and Fu Chou differ from each other in identity and personality.

Small Clown (“Xiaochou”):Commonly known as “Small Pointed Face” (“Xiaohualian”), but also called “Small Face” (“Xiaomian”) or “Three Faces”(“Sanmian”), they are funny and good-hearted characters of low social class. In addition, they sometimes play the parts of villains.

Fu Clown (“Fuchou”):Also called “Fu” or “Two Faces” (“Ermian”) and commonly called “Two Painted Faces” (“Erhualian”), these characters are vicious traitors, hacks, etc. They can also be evil and stubborn old women.Fangjin Ermian in The Water Margin

Square Two Face (“Fangjin’ermian”):This type of Fu Chou wears a creased square hood. They seem to chic be in ways similar to the above-described Jinsheng, but inside they are insidious and treacherous.

Oil Two Face (“You’ermian”):This type of Fu Chou is funny and witty.

Miscellaneous roles

Below is a description of a range of supporting roles, categorized by the types of characters found in different types of scenes.

Dragon Clothes (“Longtao”):The name of this role comes from the actors’ clothing, referred to as Dragon Clothes, which has long sleeves. The character roles within this category include attendants and maids for emperors, officials and concubines. Often found in a group of four, they transform the shape of scenes on the stage, and their running movements heighten theatmosphere being portrayed.Longtao in 1699·The Peach Blossom Fan

Fighters (“Wuhang”):These characters portray the masses in fight scenes. If the characters are good guys, they are called “Up Hands” (“Shang Shou”), and if they are bad guys, they are called “Down Hands” (“Xia Shou”).

3. Kunqu Performance Techniques

When Kunqu actors are shaping the image of their characters on the stage, they must resort to certain techniques. Over the years, Kunqu performance techniques have come to be summarized as the “four skills and five methods”. The “four skills” are singing, chanting, gestures, and acrobatics, and the “five methods”are the “hands, eyes, body, steps, and ways”. The following is a brief introduction to these performing techniques.

Singing

Singing is the most important performance skill in Kunqu. It emphasizes clear and precise enunciation, which requires clear articulation of the initial, middle, and end sound of each word. That is, since Kunqu melodies are long and slow, aword can be divided into 3 parts: the head (initial sound), the abdomen (continuation of the sound), and the tail (end of the sound), and all three parts must be clearly articulated.

In addition, the singer uses the “round tune”(“qiangyuan”) technique to highlight the unique charm of Kunqu opera tunes, combining the textand music perfectly. Such sweet, agreeable, and melodious singing will please the audience’s ears as it creates gorgeous vocal harmony.

Chanting

Chanting is a general term for passages presented as a dialogue or monologue. There are two types: one is “poetic speech” and the other is “prose speech”. The poetic speech is delivered in rhyme, whereas prose speech is close to daily language. Both forms of chanting, just like singing, require clear articulation of the head, abdomen, and tail of each sound and accurate tones.

In addition, actors must grasp the rhythms of the speech, prioritize intonational emphasis, and pay attention to cadences. The rhythm is determined by specific plot elements and the psychological states of the characters.

Beyond this, different roles take on different characteristics in their chanting. For example, young females use a soft voice, whereas older females, older males, warrior males, and painted faces chant very loudly. Young males can use a combination of soft and loud voices, and clowns often use Suzhou or Yangzhou accents.

Gestures

Refering to dance-like body movements, gestures encompass postures, facial expressions, styles, graces, etc. Gesturing can be divided into two types: one is stylized movement which is paired with a strong sense of music and rhythm and follows a set of strict rules; the other one is more flexible and improvisational.Acrobatics, in Knife Battles on Foot

Kunqu’s body movements have the following characteristics: First, they are closely paired with chanting and singing. Second, they are layered; layers of gestures open up with the development of the plot and the psychological changes of characters.

Acrobatics

Acrobatics refer to the martial arts actions. The performance forms of martial arts used in Kunqu have been shaped through the refining of some real-life fighting actions. Just like gestures, acrobatics follow strict rules, and retain a very strong sense of dance.

Kunqu acrobatics, like gestures, can be divided into two categories: the first, “weaponry kungfu” (“bazigong”), involves fighting with swords and other props; the second, called “rug kungfu” (“tanzigong”), means fighting on a rug.

Sub-categories of acrobatics are based on the number of people involved in the fighting: one type is oneon-one fighting, the other is group fighting. There are many types of one-on-one fighting: if both fighters are unarmed, it is called “pair fists” (“duiquan”), and if the two partie shold the same weapon, it is called “pair knife” (“duidao”) or “pair spears” (“duiqiang”). If the opponents have different weapons, this type of acrobatics is called “single sword and spear” (“dandaoqiang”),“big knife two knifes” (“dadaoshuangdao”), “big knife two swords” (“dadaoshuangjian”), “big knife and spear”(“dadaoqiang”), “stick and spear” (“gun’erqiang”), etc. If one fighter has a spear and the other has a knife, it is called “single knife and spear” (“dandaoqiang”), “big knife and spear” (“dadaoqiang”), or “double knife and spear” (“shuangdaoqiang”). If one party is unarmed and the other armed with a knife or spear, it is called “single hand seizes the knife” (“danshouduodao”).

There are two types of group fighting, too: if there are equal numbers on the two sides, this is known as a “shake”(“dang”); if there is one person on one side and multiple people on the other side, it is called “assemble” (“zan”).

Based on combatant dress and fighting weapons, acrobatics can be categorized as being a “long armor fight” (“changkao”) or “shortfight” (“duanda”). The former category indicates that both sides hold long weapons and wear long armor and boots. When fighting, they only parry back and forth. The latter category indicates the two sides spar face to face with swift action and onstage tumbling.

The above-mentioned “five methods” of performance techniques are as follows: hands, eyes, body, steps, andway.

Hand techniques (“shouji”):An important means of expressing emotion and shaping the Images on the stage, hand techniques include hand shape, hand position, and hand gestures.

(1) Hand shape (“shouzhuang”): This refers to the shape of fingers and palm when performing. Some of the commonly used hand shapes are: orchid fingers, angry fingers, hero fingers, number fingers, orchid palm, lotuspalm, tiger claw palm, Buddha palm, etc.

(2) Hand position (“shouwei”): This refers to the positions that hand, (as well as the wrist, elbow, and shoulder) are put. Some of the commonly used hand positions are: palms together, “two-mountain shoulders”,“single-mountain shoulder”, one arm up one arm down, both arms upturned, one fist forward, etc.

(3) Hand gestures (“shoushi”): Commonly used are cloud hands, pottery hands, rubbing hands, turning-over hands, trembling hands, shakinghands, half-moon hands, etc.Selling the Horse

Eye technique (“yanji”):This refers to the expression in one’s eyes. Eyes reveal a character’s inner feelings, and thus, through different eye techniques, actors can portray a wide range of emotions and feelings. Indeed, an ancient saying in China about acting holds that 30% of the portrayal of characters comes from costume and makeup, and 70% from the expression in the actor’s eyes. Commonly used eye techniques are: angry eyes, timid eyes, frightened eyes, proud eyes, flirtatious eyes, drunken eyes, spindle eyes, surveying eyes, etc.

Body technique (“shenji”):This refers to posture, including neck, shoulders, chest, back, waist, hip and other parts of the body. The postures and movements must match the singing and chanting as well as the plot and the characters’ emotions, and yet must not come across as artificial. When well done, these techniques seem quite natural.

Step technique (“buji”):This includes standing gestures and walking movements on stage. The specific style and step to be used is determined by the subject of the story, the different characters, and the different roles being portrayed. For instance, when the actors are taking a boat ride or stepping in water, “cloudsteps”should be employed. When female roles (“Dan”) portray begging for something or act like they are dying, they should use “knee steps”. To take another example, “drunk steps” should be used when actors are portray walking while drunk, and “ghost steps” are employed in scenes involving ghosts walking. Certain step techniques are associated with certain roles, such as “galloping steps”with a student (Jinsheng) role, “crane steps” with an older male (Laosheng) role, “crab steps” with a Clown (Chou) role, etc.

Ways technique (“faji”):This refers to the technique of mastering the mind and demeanor. The term is from the Buddhist scripture the Heart Sutra, which says that the “way” and the “mind” correspond, and advocates pursuing true emptiness with “the way of no eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no sights, sounds, smells, tastes, sense of touch”. For performing an opera, this means mastering the mind. Of all thetechniques used in opera performances, the “ways” skill occupies a commanding position.

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