作者：圣才电子书
出版社：圣才电子书
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戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）配套题库【课后习题＋章节题库（含名校考研真题）＋模拟试题】试读：
第一部分 课后习题
第1章 导 言
1．How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Key: Linguistics is a scientific study of language because it follows the methodology of other scientific study:
First of all, it is based on full and systematic collection and investigation of linguistic data, which display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.
Then linguists formulate some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.
2．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
Key: Linguistics includes Micro-Linguistics and Macro-Linguistics.
(1) Branches of Micro-Linguistics:
①Phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;
②Phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;
③Morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;
④Syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
⑤Semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;
⑥Pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.
(2) Branches of Macro-Linguistics:
①Psycholinguistics: it studies language and its relation with psychology.
②Sociolinguistics: it studies all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.
③Applied linguistics: it studies the applications of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly, it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
④Other branches, such as computational linguistics, neurolinguistics.
3．In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
Key: Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.
(1) Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
(2) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, or over-emphasize, the importance of the written documents especially the Greek or Roman Classical works, partly because of its permanence.
(3) Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based grammar framework.
4．Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
Key: In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believe that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.
5．For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?
Key:Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.
Modern linguistics gives the spoken language priority for some obvious reasons:
(1) From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.
(2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. People use much more oral language in daily life than using written language.
(3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his or her mother tongue, while writing is learned and taught later, when he or she goes to school.
(4) For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data, for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
6．How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
Key:①In Saussure’s definition, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
②Similar to Saussure’s distinction, Chomsky’s definition about competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
③Both the notion of langue and competence refer to the abstract and ideal nature of language within a human being, and parole and performance point to the actual language use. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance.
7．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
Key:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. The definition of language should include five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.
First of all, language is a system, i.e., linguistic elements are arranged systematically rather than randomly.
Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.
Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound or speech.
Fourth, words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention.
Fifth, language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.
8．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
Key:(1) Arbitrariness
This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. But it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.
(2) Productivity
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
(3) Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
(4) Displacement
Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.
(5) Cultural Transmission
Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.
(6) Interchangeability
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
9．What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.
Key: The three major functions of language are the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.
The descriptive function is also referred to as the cognitive, or referential function. It is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. E.g. “The disaster is the most serious one the country has ever seen.”
The expressive function is also called the emotive or attitudinal function. It supplied information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. The example is “I will never go there for the rest of my life.”
The social function is also referred to as the interpersonal function. It serves to establish and maintain social relations between people, e.g. “How are you doing recently?”
第2章 音位学
1．What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?
Key:Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Many languages in the world today are both written and spoken. Of the two, speech is more basic than writing.
Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written? Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
2．What is voicing and how is it caused?
Key:Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords. If the vocal cord vibrates, then the sound is said to be voiced, as /d/, /b/ and /g/; while if the vocal cord does not vibrate, then the sound is said to be voiceless, such as /t/, /p/ and /k/.
3．Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?
Key:The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.
The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose
In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f] , feel [fi:l] , build [bild ], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant , is pronounced differently from the clear [l] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [l] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~ ] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [l] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].
4．How are the English consonants classified?
Key:English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.
In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; fricatives: [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]; affricates: [t∫, dʒ]; liquids: [l, r]; nasals: [m, n, ŋ]; glides: [w, j].
In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabials: [p, b, m, w]; labiodentals :[f, v]; dentals: [θ, ð]; alveolars: [t, d, n, s, z, r, l ]; palatal: [j, ʃ, ʒ, t∫, d]; velars: [k, g, ŋ]; glottal: [h].
5．What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?
Key: Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:
①According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front, central, back
②According to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels
③According to the shape of the lips: rounded vs. unrounded
④According to the length of the vowels: tense vs. lax or long vs. short
6．Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound description:
1) voiced palatal affricate
Key: [dʒ]
2) voiceless labiodental fricative
Key: [f]
3) voiced alveolar stop
Key: [d]
4) front, close, short
Key: [i]
5) back, semi-open, long
Key: [ɒ:]
6) voiceless bilabial stop
Key: [p]
Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:
1) [d]
Key: voiced alveolar stop
2) [1]
Key: voiced alveolar liquid
3) [tʃ]
Key: voiceless palatal affricate
4) [w]
Key: voiced bilabial glide
5) [J]
Key: back, close, short
6) [œ]
Key: front, open
7．How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, hsay, [I]and[ɫ], [p]and[p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?
Key: (1) Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each, other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution hbetween [l]and[ɫ], [p]and[p].
8．What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?
Key: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme [l] in English can be realized as dark[ɫ], clear [l], which are allophones of the phoneme[l].
9．Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.
Key: (1) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules. There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.
(2) The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme，thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. For example, the [i:] is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].
The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to an adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet indiscreet, correct incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [ŋ]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.
(3) Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in there corresponding forms signature, designation and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign—signature, resign—resignation, phlegm—phlegmatic, paradigm—paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.
10．What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?
Key: Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of word stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The word desert is an excellent example.
Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. They are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. Spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.
第3章 形态学
1．Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next：
a. microfile
b. bedraggled
c. announcement
d. predigestion
e. telecommunication
f. forefather
g. psyehophysics
h. mechanist
Key:a. micro+file
b. be+draggle+ed
c. announce+ ment
d. pre+digest+ion
e. tele+communicate+ion
f. fore+father
g. psycho+physics
h. mechan+ist
2．Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.
Model: -or
suffix: -or
meaning: the person or thing performing the action
stem type: added to verbs
examples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures. etc. ”translator, “one who translates”
Key: (1) suffix: -able
meaning: something can be done or is possible
stem type: added to verbs
examples: acceptable , “can be accepted”; respectable, “can be respected”
(2) suffix: -ly
meaning: functional
stem type: added to adjectives
examples: freely, “adverbial form of ‘ free ‘ “; quickly, “adverbial form of ‘quick’”.
(3) suffix: -ee
meaning: the person receiving the action
stem type: added to verbs
examples: employee, “ one who works in a company”; interviewee , “one who is interviewed”
3．Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.
Model: -a
prefix: a-
meaning: “without；not”
stem type: added to adjectives
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