作者：陶行知
出版社：外语教学与研究出版社
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为生活而教育试读：
“博雅双语名家名作”出版说明
1840年鸦片战争以降，在深重的民族危机面前，中华民族精英“放眼看世界”，向世界寻求古老中国走向现代、走向世界的灵丹妙药，涌现出一大批中国主题的经典著述。我们今天阅读这些中文著述的时候，仍然深为字里行间所蕴藏的缜密的考据、深刻的学理、世界的视野和济世的情怀所感动，但往往会忽略：这些著述最初是用英文写就，我们耳熟能详的中文文本是原初英文文本的译本，这些英文作品在海外学术界和文化界同样享有崇高的声誉。
比如，林语堂的My Country and My People（《吾国与吾民》）以幽默风趣的笔调和睿智流畅的语言，将中国人的道德精神、生活情趣和中国社会文化的方方面面娓娓道来，在美国引起巨大反响——林语堂也以其中国主题系列作品赢得世界文坛的尊重，并获得诺贝尔文学奖的提名。再比如，梁思成在抗战的烽火中写就的英文版《图像中国建筑史》文稿（A Pictorial History of Chinese Architecture），经其挚友费慰梅女士（Wilma C. Fairbank）等人多年的奔走和努力，于1984年由麻省理工学院出版社（MIT Press）出版，并获得美国出版联合会颁发的“专业暨学术书籍金奖”。又比如，1939年，费孝通在伦敦政治经济学院的博士论文以Peasant Life in China A Field Study of Country Life in the Yangtze Valley为名在英国劳特利奇书局（Routledge）出版，后以《江村经济》作为中译本书名——《江村经济》使得靠桑蚕为生的“开弦弓村”获得了世界性的声誉，成为国际社会学界研究中国农村的首选之地。
此外，一些中国主题的经典人文社科作品经海外汉学家和中国学者的如椽译笔，在英语世界也深受读者喜爱。比如，艾恺（Guy S. Alitto）将他1980年用中文访问梁漱溟的《这个世界会好吗——梁漱溟晚年口述》一书译成英文（Has Man a Future? Dialogues with the Last Confucian），备受海内外读者关注；此类作品还有徐中约英译的梁启超著作《清代学术概论》（Intellectual Trends in the Ch'ing Period）、狄百瑞（W. T. de Bary）英译的黄宗羲著作《明夷待访录》（Waiting for the Dawn:A Plan for the Prince），等等。
有鉴于此，外语教学与研究出版社推出“博雅双语名家名作”系列。
博雅，乃是该系列的出版立意。博雅教育（Liberal Education）早在古希腊时代就得以提倡，旨在培养具有广博知识和优雅气质的人，提高人文素质，培养健康人格，中国儒家六艺“礼、乐、射、御、书、数”亦有此功用。
双语，乃是该系列的出版形式。英汉双语对照的形式，既同时满足了英语学习者和汉语学习者通过阅读中国主题博雅读物提高英语和汉语能力的需求，又以中英双语思维、构架和写作的形式予后世学人以启迪——维特根斯坦有云：“语言的边界，乃是世界的边界”，诚哉斯言。
名家，乃是该系列的作者群体。涵盖文学、史学、哲学、政治学、经济学、考古学、人类学、建筑学等领域，皆海内外名家一时之选。
名作，乃是该系列的入选标准。系列中的各部作品都是经过时间的积淀、市场的检验和读者的鉴别而呈现的经典，正如卡尔维诺对“经典”的定义：经典并非你正在读的书，而是你正在重读的书。
胡适在《新思潮的意义》（1919年12月1日，《新青年》第7卷第1号）一文中提出了“研究问题、输入学理、整理国故、再造文明”的范式。秉着“记载人类文明、沟通世界文化”的出版理念，我们推出“博雅双语名家名作”系列，既希望能够在中国人创作的和以中国为主题的博雅英文文献领域“整理国故”，亦希望在和平发展、改革开放的新时代为“再造文明”、为“向世界说明中国”略尽绵薄之力。外语教学与研究出版社人文社科出版分社
选编说明
外语教学与研究出版社推出“博雅双语名家名作”系列丛书，其中涉及陶行知英文文稿的选编及著作翻译工作。经由北京大学陈洪捷教授，出版社联系到我，希望我来作本书的编译者。
一开始我还感到这样做意义不大。待与出版社深入沟通，了解到出版意图之后，尤其是在看到列入出版计划的各位作者的著作目录后，觉得丛书应该收录陶行知的著作。于是，虽然工作繁忙，还是坦然接受了这一任务，并决定放弃2011年的春节休息，集中时间完成这一任务。
接受这个任务还有一个重要原因，陶行知的英文原作虽然大都有中文翻译——其中主要是1990年左右本人参与编辑《陶行知全集》时翻译的，但是受到当时时间紧促、对陶行知了解与认识的局限、对陶行知语言风格的不熟悉以及当时社会环境的影响，不少地方在日后校阅时就感到不满意，甚至发现明显的差错。当时我就一边阅读，一边在原书上作出标示和修改。这次有了这样一个出版契机，觉得是一次完善陶行知英文著作译文的难得机会。所以这次根据自己对陶行知30年的研究，参考了能收集到的陶行知英文著作的各种译文，对每一处文字都尽力做到既在文意上忠于原文，又在文字风格上尽可能接近作者；并且在专业词语表达上尽可能遵守专业的规范，有中文引文的部分尽可能与原引文一致。
本次选译工作得到香港教育学院何荣汉博士的大力支持，他为本书提供了《中国在转变中》、《中国的道德和宗教教育》、《中国乡村教育运动之一斑》、《祁氏汉语字典的新贡献》、《创造的教育》、《小先生与识字运动》等从耶鲁大学神学院图书馆档案室以及其他渠道搜集到的英文原文，这些英文文稿之前未在中国大陆公开出版过。通过本书将陶行知的这些英文原稿呈现给读者，既有利于它们的保留与传播，也有助于更全面准确地理解陶行知。
何博士还提供了发表于Education Review上署名为W. T. Tao的“Life is Education”的英文文稿，但该文注明Translated by H. H. L，据推断该文英文并非陶行知所写，且其中将“生活即教育”表述为“Life is Education”，与陶行知常用的表述“Life as Education”差异较大，文中多处翻译不准确，所以本书未选入。另有其他若干篇也因类似原因未选入本书。
由于陶行知生前没有将自己的英文著述集中出版过，这次所要做的工作之一就是选择篇目。依据原文价值、可读性，以及与现今社会的相关性，对陶行知全部英文著述进行整理、选编。所选附录为陶行知英译的历代故事、寓言和诗词以及他自己创作的中英文对照的诗歌，由于他当时所选版本不同，一些诗名与诗文内容与现在通行版本不尽一致，在此保留陶行知原来选定的版本。
选定篇目之后，确定书名又需要反复琢磨，为此提出十余个备选的名称。通过与出版社多次沟通，最终选择了《为生活而教育》。它反映了陶行知生活教育理论的主旨，也是所选文章的中心内容，更重要的是它包含着与现实生活中每一个人都密切相关的教育哲理，对时下遍及全社会的带有过强功利性的教育理念偏差能起到警醒和矫正作用。
从本书所确定的主题“为生活而教育”出发，人们大可不必“为陶行知而陶行知”。本书所提供的是于公众生活更加幸福有所裨益的资源，若能对读者人生选择有所启示，便发挥了它的作用，也符合陶行知精神。储朝晖2012年3月28日
CHINA IN TRANSITION
New China is the product of two civilizations—the Oriental and the Occidental.The union of these two forces has given color and shape to the present status of China, and it will determine and mold her future destiny and possibilities. It has not been long since Mr. Kiplingwrote,“O the East is East, and the West is West, and never the twain shall meet/Till earth and sky stand presently at God's great Judgment seat.”Today Mr. Kipling will be surprised to know that the East and the West have indeed found a meeting place in China.
In certain fields of activity, the meeting of the two civilizations takes the form of volcanic explosion or formidable conflict. It results in the supremacy of the one over the other or in the substitution of the one for the other. It involves both victory and submission. In other fields, it assumes the form of a union. Sometimes it is like the union of oxygen and hydrogen, sudden and jarring. At other times it may be compared with caress, courtship, or matrimonial contract.The process is essentially careful selection, adaptation, compromise, or reconciliation. It works like yeast, gradual but errective.The product is sweet and delightful.
Since the day of direct contact, the two civilizations have never ceased to conflict and unite. They react upon one another, and each is thereby modified by the other. As a result, life begins to have a richer content and much more variety. A cross-section of Chinese present-day life will perhaps reveal a lateral surface of the main characteristics of many centuries. In China we find nearly every city is surrounded by a medieval wall:there we find the great desire for a new life, hostile to the restrictive and pedantic scheme of scholasticism, which is the heart of the Renaissance;there we find the strong tendency to observe, compare, and criticize spiritual faith, which is the soul of the Reformation;there we find the starting tide of the eighteenth century industrial revolution, and there we cannot fail to find the outburst of nationalism and national consciousness, which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is a surprise to a great many of us when we find an inland farmer, sitting in a modern railway train, smoking a bamboo pipe with a fire made from a piece of flint and iron, inquiring, with an attitude of curiosity, about the woman suffrage movement in America, or talking enthusiastically about a boycott against foreign goods, in order to satisfy his patriotic conviction. So it is not quite true that“China is the European Middle Ages made visible,”as Prof. Rosshas led us to believe. Much more than that: the present day China is the European Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation, the seventeenth century, eighteenth century, nineteenth century and twentieth century made visible. There we find a dynamic picture of the transition and mingling of centuries of civilization. If we like, we may call it a spectrum of civilization, through which civilizations of different continents and centuries are brought to sharp, vivid, and beautiful contrasts.
This phenomenon reveals itself in every branch of life—in the home, in the school, in the church, in society, and in the state—but it may be best illustrated in the changes of ideals.
The Chinese old ideals of life are essentially of the Roman type. We come pretty near to the understanding of the Chinese old ideals if we just think of them in the terms of the Roman.The Chinese and the Romans seem to have reached independently the same conclusions in regard to life ideals.Their conception of life looks for a golden age in the past, and therefore it is conservative;it conceives society as an ordered institution, and therefore it is static;it emphasizes the rule of authority, and therefore it demands obedience. On the other hand, modern civilization which has its main flow from ancient Greece, has its Utopia in the future;it has a dynamic conception of society, and it encourages freedom and liberty. As a consequence of the mingling of the two civilizations, we find that in the present day Chinese world of ideals there exist, side by side, conservatism and radicalism, order and progress, authority and freedom.
Doubtless there are many persons who hold to either extreme, and battle furiously against each other. It must also be admitted that there is a pendulum of tremendous force swinging back and forth between the two extremes.These conditions we take as a matter of course, which cannot be avoided in a stage of transition.
However, there is a very fortunate fact to be mentioned, i.e., the group between the two extremes has become more and more numerous, and has become more and more powerful.This group of men recognizes the value of both the old and the new. Whatever is good must be preserved and assimilated, and whatever is not good must be cast away, no matter whether it comes from the old or the new. To them, the past is the foundation of the present and the future, while the future must be the goal of the past and the present;to them, no progress is possible without order, while order exists only for the insurance of progress; to them, authority is the guardian of freedom, and freedom is the end to which authority is a means. In a word, they find that there is a right place for every one of the apparently conflicting ideals—a right place for German efficiency as well as for American liberty. It is this group of men who have effectively overthrown the extreme conservatives and have constantly checked the wild fanaticism of the radicals; it is this group of men who are leading New China out of this critical stage of transition and are now nursing her for a great future. Blessed are those whose loyalty, wisdom, and courage the nation can rely upon to stand the test of the day.
中国在转变中
新中国是东方文明与西方文明双重文明的产物。这两种力量的融合赋予了中国现状的色和形，并将决定且陶铸她未来的命运和前景。吉卜林先生不久前写道：“啊，东方是东方，西方是西方，非到天地立在上帝裁判席前那一刻它们不会见面。”如今，会让吉卜林先生意外的是，东方与西方确实在中国交会了。
在某些活动领域，这两种文明的交会形同火山爆发或是令人畏惧的战争，从而导致一方的霸权压倒另一方，或是一方取代另一方。其中既有胜利，也有屈从与妥协。而在其他的领域，则采取了融合的形式。有时像是氢和氧的结合，事起突然而且令人惊奇。有时则堪比爱抚、求爱或是订立婚约。其必经的过程是精挑细选、彼此适应、相互妥协或调解，就像酵母，渐进却很有效，其结果是甜美且令人愉快的。
从两种文明直接对话起，就从未停止过冲突与融合。它们相互作用并改变着对方。最终，生活变得更丰富，更具多样性。当今中国人生活的一个横断面或许显示出多个世纪中国文化主要特征的一个侧面。在中国，我们发现几乎每一座城市都被中世纪的“城墙”所包围：人们渴望新生活，敌视经院哲学的束缚和墨守成规的范式，这些正是文艺复兴的核心；在这里我们看到了观察、对比和批评精神信仰的强烈趋势，这些正是宗教改革的灵魂；在这里我们看到18世纪工业革命的大潮涌动，随处可见民族主义的爆发和国民意识的觉醒，这些正是19世纪和20世纪的时代特征。当我们看到一个内地农民坐在现代的火车车厢里，一面用火刀火石点着旱烟，一面好奇地打听着美国的女权运动，或是满腔热情地谈论着抵制洋货以表达其爱国信仰时，大多数人会感到惊讶。因此，罗斯教授要我们相信“中国是看得见的中世纪欧洲”这一点真的难以苟同。毋宁说：中世纪的欧洲、文艺复兴、宗教改革以及17世纪、18世纪、19世纪、20世纪的迹象在今天的中国都能看得见。我们看到的是一幅数世纪文明转变与相互融合的动态画面。如果乐意，我们可称之为文明的光谱——各大洲和多个世纪的文明在其中呈现出显著、鲜明、悦人的差异。
这种现象体现在生活的各个方面——在家庭、在学校、在教堂、在社会以及在国家中，但是或许最显著的变化还是观念的改变。
中国人传统的生活观念本质上是罗马型的。如果我们按照罗马人的生活方式去设想中国人的传统观念就不难理解了。中国人和罗马人似乎在生活观念方面分别得出了相同的结论：他们觅求过去经历的黄金时代，因此显得保守；他们认为社会是一个有秩序的机构，因此相对静止；他们强调权威统治，因此要求顺从。另一方面，主流源自古代希腊的现代文明对未来怀有其乌托邦理想；它具有一种社会理想的原动力，并且鼓励自由和解放。作为两种文明融合的产物，在当今华人的精神世界中，保守主义与激进主义、秩序与进步、权威与自由并存。
毫无疑问，许多人在上述两种对立观念中持其一端，进而相互间激烈战斗。同样也绝不可否认有一股巨大的力量像钟摆一样在两个极端之间摇摆不定。我们将这种情况视之为理所当然，在转型的时期是不可避免的。
然而，有一个非常令人庆幸的事实值得一提，即处在两个极端之间的群体人数愈来愈多，且愈来愈强大。这个群体认为新旧两种观念均有其价值。无论观念新旧，应当取其精华，弃其糟粕。对于他们而言，过去是现在和未来的基石，而未来则是过去和现在的目标；对他们而言，没有秩序就不可能进步，而秩序仅仅是作为进步的保障而存在；对他们而言，权力是自由守护者，是实现自由的一个手段，自由才是最终目标。一言以蔽之，他们认识到明显冲突着的每一种观念都有其正确的地方，比如德国的效率有其正确的地方，美国的自由也有其正确的地方。正是这个两极之间的人群有力地推翻了极端的保守，同时不断阻止着激进的狂暴盲动；正是这群人引领新中国走出危急的转变时期，正呵护着她迈向光明的未来。祝愿这群值得民族信赖的忠诚、智慧、勇敢之士们经受住今天的考验。
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN CHINA
The problem of moral and religious instruction is an old one;it is as old as human society.It was the Greek genius that first embodied it in a philosophical presentation:“Can virtue be taught?”asked Socrates.To this Protagoras answered that it could be taught, while Socrates held to the reverse position;but at last both confused themselves with self-contradictions and left the whole matter in the cloud.However, to a modern educator this is no longer a puzzle.The chief problem of the modern educator is not “Can virtue be taught?” but “How can it be taught?”It is the purpose of this paper to present some ideas as to how morality and religion are taught in China, and how they may be better taught in the light of modern pedagogy.
A Practice of Religious and Moral Instruction in China
Roughly speaking, there are at present two systems of schools in China:government schools and missionary schools.
1.Government Schools
In the curriculum of government schools we find moral instruction given in the lower primary schools up through the intermediate schools, but not any that I know of beyond this.The lower primary, called the“citizens schools,”cover four years;the higher primary, three years;and the intermediate, four years.
In the lower and higher primary schools, two kinds of moral subjects are taught.They are, first, personal conduct, and second, classical study.
With reference to moral instruction, the Ministerial Ordinance of January 8, 1916prescribed its aims and methods quite in detail.Under the head of personal conduct, the subjects taught are:filial piety, brotherhood, loyalty, trustworthiness, love, righteous courage, politeness, industry, and cleanliness.To these the duties towards society and the state are gradually added from time to time.From the Ordinance we notice that attention is called to the practical aspects of these subjects.They are urged to be taught with a purpose of fostering the ideal of progress and the spirit of patriotism.
The moral instruction for girls in elementary schools consists of good words and deeds which are proper for girls to study.Besides, rituals are practiced.Emphasis put on chastity, modesty, and above all, self-independence, which is a new word in the history of Chinese feminine education.
The teaching of personal conduct covers two hours a week from the lower primary up through the higher primary, and one hour a week in the intermediate school.
Now we come to classical studies.Somebody will maintain that the study of the classics belongs to religious instruction, on the ground that it is the study of Confucian doctrines.But in the last analysis the Confucian doctrines are purely a system of ethics—a system of human relationships, which is more or less universally adopted in China.This system of ethics is not denominational, because we find, as we shall see later, this very thing taught in nearly all missionary schools.
In the lower primary, the study of classics consists of Mencius, which covers four years.Analects takes its place in the higher primary.These courses, as described in the Ministerial Ordinance, are given with the purpose of showing the right way—principles of the sages—and of promoting the spirit of patriotism.It is very interesting to observe that the Ordinance tries to make a distinction between the“right principles of the sages”and“personal conduct.”This is most likely due to the existence of two tendencies, i.e., the tendency to preserve classical virtues and the modern tendency to emphasize the practical.
The study of the classics begins at the third year of the lower primary and is carried on up through the higher primary.Throughout, the weekly amount of time devoted to this study is three hours.In the intermediate school advanced studies in classics are continued; as it is mixed up with literature and other subjects, I am not able to assign to it a definite amount of time for each week.
Combining the amount of time spent in the instruction in personal conduct and in classical studies we find that the time devoted to moral instruction is two hours per week in the first two years, and five hours a week from the third year on up through the seventh year, and one hour or more per week in the intermediate school.
Comparison with Foreign Systems:One way of realizing the GreekMotto“Know Thyself”is through comparison with others.In the light of the educational practice in other countries we shall come to know better our own.Let us now take a bird's eye view of the moral and religious instruction in England, Germany, the United States, and France, and see in what position China stands.
At the outset I wish to say that which is taught in England is commonly called religion and not morality.Scripture is a term which is used in the curriculum.In the English regular primary schools or Board schools,undenominational religion or Bible study forms part of the curriculum.Besides, we find sectarian teachings taught in schools belonging to the Church of England, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Wesleyan Church.These church schools are, equally with the Board schools, supported and controlled by the state.The only difference between them is that the Board schools depend upon local rates, while denominational schools depend upon charity, for further funds.In fact, the influence of the latter type seems to be much greater than that of the Board schools.It is reported that thirty-one out of forty-four training colleges of teachers belong to Established Church.
As to time allotment for special instruction in Scripture, it is usually two and a half hours a week throughout the Board and grammar schools.This, however, cannot be taken as the typical example because it is very hard to find a curriculum which really represents the English system.Besides the regular instruction in the Scripture there are church services.In all public schools the chapel service is that of the Church of England.
As in England, it is religion that is taught in the German schools.In Germany we find two kinds of elementary schools, each covering eight years, and five kinds of secondary schools, three of which cover nine years.It is very interesting to notice that almost every public school in Germany is denominational, i.e., either Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, or Mixed.The local control of the school is largely in the hands of the local clergy, so that although all schools are public, the hold of the mother church upon them is still firm.The teachers are also distinctly religious.They receive religious instruction in the normal schools from three to four hours a week for three years.Each school has its teachers of the favored faith, and text books on religious instruction are prepared by them.In districts which are sparsely populated, children of different faiths receive secular instruction together.These are called Mixed schools.In such a school when students of the same faith reach the number of ten or fifteen, they can demand a teacher belonging to their own denomination.
In Germany it is found that in all kinds of elementary schools, religious instruction occupies four hours a week, and in the secondary schools, three hours a week in the first year, beyond which two hours a week throughout.
The situation in both Germany and England is unique.Very little similarity exists between these two systems and ours.One is distinctly religious and the other is distinctly moral or ethical.As far as time allotments are concerned, Table I shows that the Chinese system is stronger, at least, in elementary schools.Further, the Chinese system is continuous;i.e., the elementary school leads into the secondary school, while in both Germany and England the secondary curriculum meets half way with the elementary.
Opposed to the religious character of the Anglo-German type of public education, the public primary schools and high schools in the United States are secular and undenominational.Thirty states of the Union prohibit support to denominational schools.Twelve states have constitutional provisions against sectarian text books and sectarian control over public schools.Mississippi is the only state stipulating in her constitution that the Bible shall not be excluded from her public schools, and only nine states have statutory provision for this cause.The laws of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and that of North Dakota permit only ten minutes' daily reading of Bible without comment.
As to moral instruction, twenty-one states have made legal provision for it.But the prevailing type of American public school is without any formal instruction in religion or morality.The former is taken care of by the church, while the latter is given in connection with other subjects.
Table I representing the number of hours per week devoted to religious or moral instruction in the elementary and secondary schools in England, Germany, France, the United States and China.
This table is constructed from the materials furnished in Paul Monroe's Secondary Education, pp.80, 85, 97, 98, 109-110, A.C.Perry's Outline of School Administration, pp.15, 42, 379 and the Chinese Government Educational Bulletin.
As in the United States, the French public primary schools are secular;but unlike the former, they lay great stress upon formal moral instruction.Only lay teachers are allowed to teach in the public schools.As a result in Catholic France, there arise the sectarian private schools, but again, unlike those in the United States, these schools are subjected to state inspection on matters relating to morality, laws, and the constitution, but receive no support from the State.The secondary schools in France are also secular.However, the ministers are allowed to attend, outside of the usual classroom hour, for the purpose of giving religious instruction to those who desire it.
Now, both in France and the United States we find some features similar to the Chinese system.As in the United States, the Chinese course of study is continuous, i.e., the elementary curriculum leads to the secondary curriculum without any break or overlapping.As in both the United States and France, the governmental schools are essentially secular and are free from religious restriction.Although it is alleged that the worship of Confucius is conducted in the school, from its very nature such a worship is but a tribute of honor and love paid to a national sage, and is not very different from the celebration of Washington's or Lincoln's birthday.The non-sectarian nature of the Confucian ethics is further proved by the fact that even in missionary schools, these doctrines are invariably taught.Thus we can readily see that whether Confucianism ought to be taught in its original form in the elementary schools or not must be looked upon as pedagogical rather than a religious question.Admitting that this point of view is the true fact, then of the two countries compared the Chinese system is more like the French, because as in French and not in the United States, the prevailing tendency is a formal instruction in morality.
2.Religious and Moral Instruction in Missionary Schools in China
In the treatment of this topic, attempt is made to divide it into three parts, namely: (I) Primary Schools, (II) Secondary Schools, (III) Colleges.A statement must be made to the effect that the conclusions reached in the following discussion are incidentally drawn from past personal impressions, but are mainly based on the information contained in the curricula and catalogues of different missionary institutions and are thus not free from the shortcomings which are inherent in such a study.Further, a few of the curricula which have been studied, such as the Central China Educational Union, Soochow University, and Hangchow University curricula, are not quite up to date.The readers must beware of possible improvements in these institutions since their dates of publication and make due discount accordingly.
a Missionary Primary SchoolsTwo curricula out of five, the Standard Course of Study of the Union Educational Movement in the province of Chili, and the Central China Educational Union Curriculum, are selected to represent the central tendency of religious and moral instruction in missionary primary schools.
Table II: Comparison of time allotment for moral and religious instruction in Missionary Elementary Curricula with that of the Diocese of Pittsburgh, chosen as a representative curriculum in American denominational elementary education, and with the Chinese Government Elementary Curriculum.表2 将中国的教会小学与作为美国教派小学教育代表的匹兹堡主教教区，以及中国公办小学课程表在道德与宗教教育时间分配上作比较。Chr.stands for Christian literature other than Bible;B, Bible;C, Classics;P, Personal Conduct;m, Memory Work;and T, Total No.of hours.Chr.代表基督教文而非《圣经》，B代表《圣经》，C代表经书，P代表修身，m代表背诵课，T代表总学时。
Both the Chili and the Central China Curricula cover eight years.Although the Chili Curriculum does not specify a definite amount of time given to moral instruction in some grades, yet from that in the fifth, sixth and seventh grades we are pretty safe in saying that it is quite the same as the Central China Curriculum.
The chief fact about these curricula is the existence of a dualistic feature, i.e., Christian religion and Confucian ethics are taught at the same time to the same children and not infrequently by the same teachers.
The second fact is the amount of moral and religious instruction loaded upon the child.In the Chili Curriculum we notice that during the first two years religious and moral instruction occupies ten hours a week.From the third year on we have eight hours a week throughout, except in the fourth year, which alone devotes only seven hours.By comparison we can readily see how much more time is allotted for moral and religious instruction than in either the curriculum of the Chinese Government schools or that of the Diocese of Pittsburgh, which may be taken as representative of sectarian primary schools in the United States.
The third fact is the drudgery of memory work.In the Chili Curriculum we notice that the work of memorizing the Bible and the Chinese Classics is carried up through the sixth year.The Central China Curriculum does not specify memory work after the third year, but during the first three years when motor activity is most needed, the child is also subjected to the formal memorization of Analects.The work of memory is not in itself bad;if learning is of great use, we must know how to retain it.In the matter of morality and religion, it is the concepts gained from experience, and not precept ground from books, that most need to be retained and developed.The former will be taken care of by experience itself, while the latter will eventually be lost in spite of the process of formal memorization.However, we must not be too harsh in our criticisms.We will all know what may be the result when new wine is put into the old bottle.As the missionaries get into contact with our traditional methods, their untrained teachers and educators are apt to fall into the temptation to copy and imitate.b Secondary SchoolsUnder moral and religious instruction in the missionary secondary schools only college preparatory schools are presented here for discussion.These institutions usually have a course for four years.Among the leading university preparatories, Soochow and Foochow rank highest in the amount of time allotment, three hours a week being devoted to religious instruction.Next come Hangchow, Nanking, West China Union, Shanghai Baptist, St.John’s, which have two hours per week for religious instruction.Boone University Preparatory is most liberal;it spends only one hour a week in such a course.Compared with the denominational Academy of St.Olaf University in America, most of the missionary university preparatories, except Soochow and Foochow, are a little lighter in time allotment.
In the preparatory schools of Boone, Nanking, Foochow, West China Union, and St.John's, the provision for the study of Chinese ethics is absent at least in name.In some of these institutions the Classics are studied as literature.The preparatory schools of Soochow, Hangchow, and Shanghai Baptist, still continue the dualistic feature, as can be readily seen from Table III.
Table III: Time allotments for religious and moral instruction in missionary secondary schools compared.Figures represent the number of hours per week through the year.表3：教会中学的宗教与道德教育的时间分配之比较。数字代表全年每周学时数。*Dates of publication of the catalogues of these institutions年份指这些学校课程目录的出版时间。c Missionary CollegesIn such institutions as West China Union University, Canton Christian College, St.John's University, and the University of Nanking, other allied subjects of religion have been introduced to replace the instruction in creeds and beliefs of a particular denomination.Although they are closely connected with religion, yet such courses as the philosophy of theism, comparative religion, science and philosophy of religion, religion and the nation, history of the social influences of the Church, and education in religion and morals are not what we ordinarily call religious instruction.They are essentially the philosophical, sociological, and pedagogical studies.Therefore the colleges which have gradually substituted these vitalized subjects naturally form a more liberal group by themselves.This group includes West China Union University, Canton Christian College, St.John's University, University of Nanking and Shanghai Baptist College.A study of the catalogues of these institutions through a number of years points to the conclusion that they seem to have a tendency to follow the course along which the American nonsectarian private universities have evolved from the original sectarian institutions.
The conservative group consists of Hangchow University and Soochow University.In these institutions no attempt has been made to introduce subjects other than the traditional curriculum of religious instruction.The subjects taught are usually The Gospels, Acts, The Prophets, and so on, but not beyond the two Testaments.However, in order to be fair, it must be stated again that the catalogues of these two institutions accessible to this paper were published in 1912 and possible improvements since that date are very conceivable.Nevertheless, so far as the conditions in 1912 are concerned, the authenticity of data justifies this classification.In subject matter, even the very conservative denominational universities, Georgetown and St.Olaf in the United States, are more liberal than they are.Soochow averages higher even in time allotment for religious instruction than St.Olaf, if not higher than Georgetown.
Table IV:Comparison of the subject matter of and time allotments for moral and religious instruction in Missionary Colleges.The dates of the publication of the college catalogues used in the construction of this table are as follows:West China Union University, 1915-1916;Canton Christian College, 1915;St.John's University, 1914-1915;University of Nanking, 1915-1916;Shanghai Baptist College, 1916; Boone University, 1915-1916; Foochow College, 1915; Hangchow College, 1912;Soochow University, 1912;St.Olaf University, 1915-1916.
The only institutions left unclassified are Foochow Uni.and Boone University.No information has been obtained in regard to the nature of the subject matter of religious instruction in Foochow Uni.With respect to the amount of time devoted to religious instruction, Boone University is one of the liberal type, but in the matter of subjects taught it can hardly be classified as such.
We can still trace the dualistic tendency of teaching Christian religion and Confucian ethics in the curriculum of Hangchow University.Here we find side by side with the instruction in religion three hours a week devoted to the study of Classics as ethics.This feature is by no means peculiar to Hangchow, and may be found in other colleges.
B Theories of Education in Morals and Religion
1.The Psychological Basis for Moral and Religious Education
Both religious and moral education are governed by the same laws of psychological life and have the same psychological basis.At the very beginning of human life we inherit a number of well-defined tendencies to act in a certain situation and toward a certain direction.These well-defined tendencies constitute what we call the original nature of man.And all the forces that act upon it after conception are considered environmental forces.Prof.Thorndikemaintains that character—what a man is and does—is a result of the continuous interaction between the original tendencies and environmental forces.This starts our theory of Situation-Response-connection.This means that there is a spontaneous connection between a specific original tendency and a specific situation.For instance, in the situation of the presence of a bowl of rice and I am hungry, my original response toward the rice is to take and eat it.Now suppose one of the elements changes, say I am not hungry, then my attitude toward the rice will be different because of the change in the situation.
Character is simply the accumulated habitual connection formed in a similar manner.The problem of moral and religious education is thus the formation of the desired connections between a certain situation and a certain original tendency or group of tendencies in response.The worth or value of any one original tendency lies in its functioning in the situation; in the realm of morality and religion it depends on how the tendency works out in the social environment.As the social environment advances in civilization, some of man's original tendencies, such as the sexual impulse, which are universal and essential to human life, and yet if allowed their own development is not suitable to present social conditions, need to be modified;other original tendencies, such as anger instincts, etc., are for most of the time even harmful to the individual and to society, and need to be discouraged;finally, we have all sorts of beneficial instincts, such as the instinct of gregariousness, cooperativeness, etc., which need to be strengthened and enriched.Thus the duty of the school towards the student's character formation is to modify, redirect, discourage, strengthen, enrich, and develop the respective instincts so that the possessor can adapt himself to the social environment in a harmonious and progressive manner.
Now, in order to perform this task intelligently, three laws need to be recognized.
First, we have the law of readiness.When the child's attitude is one of readiness to act, if it has the opportunity to do so it gets satisfaction.On the other hand, when the child is not ready to act, if it is compelled to act, or when it is ready to act but is not allowed to, in both cases the child is dissatisfied or annoyed.Therefore one fundamental principle of educational method is to appeal to the interest of the taught.This doctrine of interest is especially important when we come to the matter of religion or inner belief.Any outside compulsion against the child's mind set will surely cause repulsive reactions.
Next, we come to the law of use and disuse.When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and a response, that connection's strength, other things being equal, is increased, and, when it is not made, decreased.Take smoking, for instance;the moment our lips touch a cigar a connection is made.The more often we smoke the stronger will be the connection between us and the cigar, until finally the bond becomes so strong that it can hardly be broken.On the other hand, the method of breaking any bad habit is to make no more connections.
Finally comes the law of effect.When a modifiable connection between a situation and a response is made and is accompanied or followed by satisfaction, that connection's strength is increased, and when the connection is accompanied or followed by an annoyingness it is decreased.This is the most important law for moral education.It is but the temporary and immediate satisfaction which a vice gives to a man's original nature that makes a man its slave.With the law of effect,we can attach a satisfying state of affairs to those connections which are good for society and the individual and attach annoyingness to those which are undesirable.This will be the most effective means for moral improvement.However, the three laws are correlative.Apart from the law of readiness, men may invent all sorts of emulations and punishment against the mind set and“interest in the process”of the child, which is the most condemnable thing in school practice.
2.The Sociological Basis
The operation of the psychological laws will be made clearer as we go along in the discussion of the sociological basis.Character, after all, can only be formed by active participation in social life.The child does not know what is meant by honesty, cleanliness, or faith unless he has some experience to begin with.We do not know how to swim by simply learning some movements on land.If we want to succeed in swimming, we have to learn it in the water.So it is the case with conduct.If we want to know how to behave well in society we have to participate in it, to participate in it in order to acquire the meanings of the virtues, to participate in it in order to acquire judgment so that we may know how to act in a new situation through the experience of the past.In a word, the school, the whole school should be a miniature society where moral and spiritual ideals must be at work, and where the child can share in the important phases of social life.Inasmuch as we spend most of our time in teaching virtues and beliefs according to books and words and rarely provide such active participation in social life, we must admit that the present methods are far from being adequate.When a six-year-old child begins to study Mencius or Paul he may appear to understand something, but in fact it is but skin deep.Suin Tze, in criticizing formal instruction, says:“The common people's education comes into the ears and goes out through the mouth, and therefore it is only four inches deep—the distance between the ears and the mouth.”We may safely say that ideas about morality do not guarantee the conduct we desire, and any instruction based on this ideo-motor theorywill surely find disappointment.One reason why we find little or no conflict existing between the instruction in Christian religion and Confucian ethics in missionary schools is because the formal instruction in both religion and morality without actual participation is without much effect on conduct.
Furthermore, the child whose character we try to build up is a developing being.He grows in society.His experience is in a state of“continuous reconstruction.”His interest and attitude change from time to time.According to Baldwinthe child first distinguishes external things from his bodily self, then it differentiates the external things into persons and inanimate objects, and at the third stage it attempts to perform and imitate the former's actions.Through imitation the child comes to know and feel himself in the mind of others, and thus furnishes the opportunity for others to influence his own action.
In the exertion of such an influence we must also recognize the four stages of the development of conduct.First, we have the stage of instinctive behavior, at which the child's conduct is modified only by the influence of pains and pleasures.[...] is the stage at which the operation of the instinctive impulses is modified by the influence of rewards and punishments, administered more or less systematically by the social environment.Third, we come to the stage where conduct is controlled in the main by the anticipation of social praise and blame.Finally, there is the highest stage of moral development, at which conduct is regulated by an ideal that enables a man to act in a way that seems to him right regardless of the praise or blame of his immediate social environment.This fourth stage suggests to me“the Good Shepherd.”It reads:“I am the good shepherd…and I lay down my life for the sheep.…Therefore does my Father love me because I lay down my life, that I might take it again.”Up to this place nothing sounds very extraordinary, but watch that which follows:“No man takes it from me, but I lay it down of myself.I have power to lay it down and I have power to take it again.”It is such high moral power that we must take as our final goal of development.Those who take the responsibility of shaping the child's conduct must keep in mind the progression from the first to this highest stage.They must administer their influences and adapt materials in such a way as to enable the child to progress continuously onward and upward until this last stage is reached, when conduct sometime is the only language intelligible to the child.
3.The Pragmatic Basis
Closely connected with the sociological theory of moral and religious education there is the pragmatic aspect of the question.According to this point of view, there is a unity between knowledge and conduct, in learning and doing.As knowledge is the concept and guidance of conduct, so conduct is knowledge personified.Knowledge apart from conduct is empty knowledge, while conduct apart from knowledge is blind action.The two are one and the one cannot be gained without going through the other.Accordingly, all the courses in the curriculum and all classrooms and administrative methods must have the end of character formation in view, just because all knowledge is related to conduct.So all subject matter and methods as a result of accumulative effects must be able to contribute their share in the creation of a wholesome personality.Take the study of history, for instance.The study of history is the study of social
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